


♦ a? ^a • sarcsM «? ^, WW* *y *u> •' 



r oy 










°4- ••••* A 

♦ ^ & * 




-„/ \,-'V.....V 




»p •"•*., 






V*^ f V r v^ # v ' X*^* V* 



^ A * v ♦•■ 



f AX*. -1 









•i^f* «i 

















^ v . 



o * 




* * 




,♦ .ttfe* \^ y^£ % ++* .vflfcr. +< 




v *<? 




VV 






^ % 









4*^ 






c u ♦*, 



.ft? ^k -t£ 








v ** •*jSte*- ^ ^ *<■ 

"1°^^ .0* ..-*•• _V 



V 6 



*c 






•n 








£^i*4m~ 



i 







-V WNYJCn 



A NEW 
PRACTICAL AND INTELLECTUAL METHOD 

OF 

LEARNING FRENCH, ' 

GROUNDED ON NATURE'S TEACHINGS; 

ADAPTED TO THE 

SYSTEM OF NOEL AND CHAPSAL. 

WITH CRITICAL REMARKS OX GRAMMARS USED IX OUR SCHOOLS. 
A COMPLETE COURSE, 

ORAL, AND SYNTHETICAL,. 
" La diction depend de la grammaire." 



By PROFESSOR JEAN B. SUE, A.M. 

FORMER PUPIL OF THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF SOREZE. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO 
1864. 







Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, by 

JEAN B. SUE, 

i the Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Eastern District of 
Pennsylvania. 



4*)6' 



PREFACE. 



It is needless to expatiate here upon the many advantages of a knowledge 
of the French tongue, the repeated efforts to provide our youth with that 
indispensable finish for a polite education being sufficient proof that those 
advantages are thoroughly appreciated by our people. A want, however, 
hitherto much felt has been that of a good French text-book for schools, and 
which in the prosecution of their studies might be advantageously consulted 
by French scholars. 

Numerous works for this purpose have been published in the United States 
and England. Recommended by promising titles, they are put forth as the desi- 
deratum looked for ; yet among them, we are sorry to say, none have explained 
with accuracy the simple principles of the French tongue, or have remained 
free from discreditable errors. Inaccurate in definitions and theories, equally 
at variance with French syntax and with common sense,* some of these pro- 
ductions serve only to demonstrate the deficiency of their authors as French 
grammarians. Complete failures, insurmountable obstacles to progress, echoing 
each other, these compilations are known only by their negative results. 

Our verdict is just, though to some it may appear severe. It is a fair ren- 
dition of public opinion on this matter. It is easy for any one to point out 
and descant on the beauties of French literature; but if we wish to indicate 
the path leading to those summits, we must first teach how to be correct. 

To supply this want we offer the present Practical and Intellectual Method, 
containing a complete accurate syntax of the French language, with the 
means of conforming English thought to the necessities of that syntax. Blend- 
ing practice with theory, by the repeated application of rules of the French 
syntax, the principal object of our system is to familiarize learners with the 
peculiarities of French composition and modes of thought. 

Our work is divided into three parts, each arranged and explained method- 
ically by numerous references to general principles. 

Part First contains exact definitions and a thorough practice on the ten 
elements of the French tongue. In this part, practice and theory, though 
thrown together, are independent of each other; the former — the study of 
words — being adapted to the capacity of the youngest class of learners.. 

* That a noun the object of a verb conjugated negatively has a partitive meaning, is a 
grammatical fallacy promulgated originally by the professor of the University of Michi- 
gan, and repeated by others. 

See Fasquelle, p. 37-5, I have no money ; Pujol and Van Norman, p. 30-8, 7 have no 
knife. In either French or English such sentences are negative. 

Such errors manifest on the part of their authors a complete ignorance or disregard of 
the general principles of language. 

- iii 



IV PREFACE. 

Contrary to the system adopted in other methods, we abstain from giving 
rules on French pronunciation, believing as we do that such rules can only 
result in the corruption of the sounds of the language in study. Baffling 
analysis or written descriptions, oral sounds must be learned from the mouths 
of teachers.* 

The practice of verbs, that essential though sadly neglected department of 
study, has in our book received special attention. Learners are not required 
to memorize verbs on paradigms, as is recommended in mechanical methods. 
To prevent routine or unintelligent memorizing, we give models of exercises 
on the general principles of verbs, wherein learners are taught to distinguish 
mode, tense, person, and number, by means of inflexions and general principles, 
or are expected to reconstruct paradigms with our resumes on verbs, where 
mode, tense, person, etc., have been purposely inserted in a promiscuous man- 
ner. This simple and efficient mode of tuition on verbs, which is peculiar to 
our system, is a severe test for the capacity of students on that important 
branch of study. So long as learners cannot distinguish mode, tense, person, 
and number by means of inflexions or general principles, they do not possess 
the degree of knowledge of the verb requisite to use with success that great 
motor of speech. 

The subjunctive — always represented in former methods by one unmeaning 
verb in French and two corresponding verbs in English, but given in our text- 
book under the shape of incidental propositions — need no longer be a stum- 
bling-block for the beginner. Presented in our method under its true form, 
there can be no difficulty in arriving at a clear idea of its uses and meanings. 

In our list of irregular verbs, we have 'purposely given the irregular part alone, 
and by means of rules on the four regular conjugations have left it for pupils 
to fill up the blank, thus securing them matter for practical intellectual 
exercises. 

Our resumes on the four regular conjugations must be used to develop our 
entire practice on verbs ; regular or irregular verbs may be substituted for 
them. Intended as the groundwork of simultaneous practice on the different 
parts of speech as they present themselves in the order of study, and com- 
bining the practice of verbs with that of the other parts of the language, these 
resumes will guide learners to the construction of impromptu French sen- 
tences, such as they find ready-made in other Methods. This intellectual 
system of teaching we recommend to the friends of progress in study; com- 
bining practice with theory, it tends to develop the learners' ideas and to fami- 
liarize them with the art of French composition. Aside from its character as 
an introduction to more important studies, this part of our book in its simple 
practical exercises constitutes a complete preparatory French course for be* 
ginners. Answering to the practice of our mother-tongue acquired in early 
childhood, the foundation of every language, these exercises form the ground- 
work of our system and point out the only path leading to an exact know- 
ledge of the French tongue. 

* If to teach pronunciation we must make use of such vague expressions as " nearly 
like," it would be better not to attempt to teach at all. See Fasquelle, Pujol and Yan 
Norman. 

The French u, the nasal sounds, and the liquid I, having no equivalent in English, must 
be taught by practical teachers. 



PREFACE. V 

Part Second contains a complete and accurate exposition of French syn- 
tax. With the exception of a few additional remarks indispensable for Eng- 
lish learners, it is a translation of the excellent work of Noel and Chapsal,. 
an eminently classic production adopted in French schools. Pointing out the 
errors and false theories of certain French methods used in this country, a few 
critical remarks on those works may prove acceptable to teachers and those 
in charge of our educational institutions. 

At this second stage of tuition our exercises will be : — 

(1.) Translations and recitations, in French, of rules of grammar, in order 
perfectly to memorize and understand them. These recitations, completing 
our oral system, will answer the French questions accompanying our lessons. 
(2.) Translating our English exercises on the French syntax, and correcting 
the French exercises on false syntax, extracted from Noel and Chapsal's 
Grammar. These corrected exercises, coming as many of them do from the 
works of French writers, and constituting models of construction, are in- 
comparably superior to the trivial phraseology employed for the same purpose 
in methods adopted. (3.) As a prominent feature of our system of practical 
application of the French syntax, the literal translation of the Yicar of Wake- 
field into French. Accompanied by numerous references to our method, in- 
dicating the proper use of verbs, their modes, tenses, persons, objects, etc., 
the text of that charming production of Goldsmith teaches practically their 
irregularities, their different acceptations, and their general principles. The 
comparison of this literal translation with our own, contrasting the idioms of 
the two languages, will render the student familiar with those peculiarities 
of each which can never be learned by the study of rules. To render 
the work complete as a guide, copious references to the synthetic, idiomatic, 
and figurative parts of the French syntax have been made in the English 
text of the Vicar of Wakefield, explaining minutely the composition of 
sentences, when consisting of comple^ elliptic, or implicit propositions. 
Our free translation as justified by references to that syntax, forming a com- 
plete analytic system of the French tongue, demonstrates the power of that 
language to render with conciseness, clearness, and grace the expressions of 
the English. The versatility of Goldsmith's ge*hius has enabled us to display 
the different styles of literary composition; from the sublime and pathetic to 
the light and humorous, — from the grave ufterances of the profound divine 
in the pulpit to the rantings of the comedian of a strolling stage; giving us 
also specimens of the most lively narrative and descriptive styles, interspersed 
with passages of familiar conversation. 

In these practical exercises lies the characteristic feature of our method, 
viz. : they furnish learners with good materials for translating grammatically 
into French, without regard to English constructions, the primitive idea of 
the text. That practice is fully illustrated by references to the appropriate 
parts of syntax. The main object of our system is the memorizing of rules 
by their repeated application ; rendering the most tedious or repulsive part of 
study easy and attractive to the learner. This practice and that used in 
acquiring the correct knowledge of our mother-tongue are essentially alike : 
such a knowledge can be attained in no other way than by education and the 
practical study of syntax. 

To render our work as complete as possible, we have introduced some 

1* 



Tl PREFACE. 

examples of logical parsing. They form an introduction to the syntax, giving 
an insight of general grammar, and develop a fundamental principle of that 
grammar so woefully misunderstood by most if not all American grammarians, 
who class to be among neuter verbs, though the verb to be, used alone, is to 
all intents a substantive verb differing from any other. 

In introducing the four figures of syntax, we have made good another 
deficiency of former methods. How our Anglo-Franco grammarians could 
hope to teach a figurative language like the French, without the help of 
those four figures, is to us inexplicable. Those figures are the only means 
of throwing light on certain parts of languages. Students must bear in mind 
that, generally, French sentences have two forms of construction. One, direct, 
answering always to the English construction, is called grammatical; the 
other, differing from it, is called figurative. Such are French sentences in 
which pronouns becoming objects through inversion are placed before verbs. 
In its practice with cases of ellipsis, pleonasm, syllepsis, and inversion, our 
method explains to the learner every part of the syntax. The general prin- 
ciples of punctuation are also defined in the second part of this book. ■ 

Part Third is a methodical exposition of some characteristic idioms of 
the French tongue contrasted with corresponding English expressions. The 
differences between the two languages are also summed up minutely in this 
part, where will be found many verbs and substantives susceptible of several 
meanings. The work concludes with an appendix on the different offices 
which words may fulfil in speech, and a general index will be found after the 
third part, page 603. It is, undoubtedly, the most complete system for learn- 
ing French ever published in any country, and a book much needed in our 
schools. Raising the study of the French tongue to the height of a science, 
and making it attractive for adults, its natural and simple mode of teaching 
principles makes it also accessible to the youngest class of learners. 

Such as we have described abo^ are some of the methods used in this 
country, with their unfathomable principles, theoretical bubbles, and un- 
accountable errors. Differing entirely from them, and based on the most 
reliable text-books used in the schools of France, our practical intellectual 
method will, by means of accurate theory and good practice, teach effectually 
how to read, write, speak, and compose French grammatically. 



COMPLETE FRENCH COURSE. 



FIRST PART. 



INTRODUCTION. 

FIRST LESSON. 

1, French Grammar is the art of speaking or writing correct 
French. 

2. To speak or write, words are used. 
3* Words are composed of letters. 

4. There are two kind of letters, Vowels and Consonants. 

5. Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. They are called vowels because with- 
out the help of other letters they form voices or sounds. 

6. The sounds of these six vowels are not the only sounds composing 
the French language. The French alphabet having no particular 
character to represent them, to make up the deficiency combinations 
of letters have been adopted. Such are eu, on, en, on, un, &c. Though 
composed of more than one letter, these combinations must be con- 
sidered as mere vowels, each of them representing simple sounds. — 
An, in, on, un, &c. are called nasal, being pronounced through the 
nose. 

7. Consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. 
They have received that name because without the help of vowels 
they cannot produce sounds. 

8. Towels are long or short. 

9. Long vowels are those on which we dwell a long time when 
pronouncing them ; short ones, those which we pass over rapidly.' 

1 



GRAMMAR. 



Therefore 
a 



e 

i 

o 

u 

eu 

ou 



pate, paste, 
beche, spade, 
6pitre, epistle, 
is long in -i motion,motion, 
Mie, flute, 
jeune, fast, 
Icroute, crust, 



or short in 



patte, paw. (953) 

breche, breach. (959) 

petite, small. (964) 

mode, fashion. (968) 
culbute, somerset. (978) 
jeune, young. 

doute, doubt. (934) 



10. There are three kinds of e; e mute or silent, 6 closed, h open. 
E mute, hardly audible in me, &e, livre, table, sometimes is not 

sounded. Such is the case with the following words: je prie, je 
prierai, paiement ; I pray, I will pray, payment. 

E closed, pronounced with the mouth nearly closed, gets its name 
• from that circumstance. 

Ex. : am6nit6, rocher, nez ; amenity, rock, nose. 

E open, so denominated because its pronunciation requires the 
mouth to be wide open. 

Ex. : succes, modele, appelle ; success, model, call. 

11. Y is sometimes used for double i, sometimes for one. On that 
account it is classed among vowels. 

It is used Yor double i after vowels in the middle of words. 

Ex. : pays, essuyer, moyen ; country, to wipe, means. 

It is used for i at the beginning or end of words : yacht, dey ; 
yacht, dey. Or after consonants in the interior of words : style, sy- 
m6trie; style, symmetry. (981.) 

12. H consonant is mute or aspirated. It is mute when it adds 
nothing to the pronunciation, as in TAomme, TAistoire, TAuma- 
nite, which are pronounced as if they were written Pomme, Pistoire, 
PumanitS. 

It is aspirated when requiring the vowel following it to be pro- 
nounced with aspiration, or drawing of the breath, preventing any 
blending of that vowel with the preceding consonant. 

Ex. : le hameau, la haine, les h6ros ; hamlet, hate, heroes. 

13. One or more letters pronounced with a single emission of 
voice, form what is called a syllable. Therefore, jour, day, has 
only one syllable ; esprit, mind, two ; v6rite, truth, three> 

14. Syllables having two distinct sounds with a single emission of 
voice, form what is called a diphthong; such are the double sounds 
ia, ie, oi, ui, etc. 

Ex. : diacre, pied, lot, hwt'le ; deacon, foot, late, oil. 



INTRODUCTION. 6 

15. A word having but one syllable is called monosyllable ; chant, 
gant, bon, singing, glove, good ; dissyllable when having two ; bonte, 
ami, goodness, friend ; trisyllable when having three ; bonnement, 
attendre, merely, to wait. Polysyllable is the name given gene- 
rally to words having more than one syllable, whatever be their 
number. 

Ex. : peuple, abondant, humanite" ; people, abundant, humanity. 

16. In the French language ten different kinds of words are the 
component parts of speech: the substantive, article, adjective, pro- 
noun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and inter- 
jection. 

17. They are divided into variable and invariable words. 

IS. The variable are those which are changeable in their termi- 
nation; viz.: the substantive, article, adjective, pronoun, verb, and 
participle, each susceptible of inflexions, or changes in their endings. 

19. The invariable, or unchangeable in their termination, are the 
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Qu'est-ce que la grammaire franchise ? 2. Pour parler et pour 
e*crire qu'emploie-t-on? 3. De quoi sont composes les mots? 4. 
Combien y a-t-il de sortes de lettres? 5. Quelles sont les voyelles? 

6. Sont-ce la tous les sons simples de la langue franchise? faites-nous 
en connaitre d'autres et donnez-nous un exemple des sons nasals? 

7. Quelles sont les consonnes? 8. Comment divise-t-on les voyelles? 
9. Quelles sont les voyelles longues et les breves? donnez-nous des exem- 
ples de leur prononciation ? 10. Combien y a-t-il de sortes d'e? 11. 
Quel est en franqais Temploi de Yy ? 12. Quand la lettre h est- 
elle muette? quand est-elle aspiree? 13. Qu' appelle-t-on syllabe? 

14. Comment appelle-t-on les syllabes qui forment deux sons distincts? 

15. Qu' appelle-t-on monosyllabe, dissyllabe, trisyllabe, et poly syl- 
labe? 16. Combien y a-t-il de parties du discours en francais, et 
comment les appelle-t-on ? 17. Comment ces parties sont-elles divi- 
s6es? 18. Quels sont les mots appelSs variables? 19. Quels sont 
ceux in variables ? 



4 GRAMMAR. 

SECOND LESSON. 

Verb (676). 

20. Verbs are words expressing affirmations, or the existence of 
persons and things in connection with qualities attributed to them. 
(18,458.) 

Ex. : Dieu est bon ; Gqd is good. 

Etre, to be, in this example, expresses not only affirmatively God's 
existence, but refers also to goodness, the quality attributed to him.* 

21. To conjugate verbs affirmatively, the following personal pro- 
nouns are used in the two languages. They stand for subjects in 
propositions : 

Singular < Thou. 
Sujets. 



(Je. 
-\ Tu. 
( II ov 



Singulier 

' '1 on elle, 
f Nous. 

Pluriel -j Vous. 

( lis ou elles, 



[ He or she. 
( We. 
Plural < You. 
I They. 



Subjects. 



These pronouns stand for subjects in affirmative, interrogative, or 
negative sentences, but cannot be used in French for elliptic propo- 
sitions, as in English. In French we say, 

C'est moi; It is I. — 7, answering to moi, me. 

standing for: C'est moi qui l'ai 

fait (484) ; It is I who have done it. 

22. In simple tenses these pronouns are placed before verbs ; be- 
fore auxiliaries in compound tenses: 

Ex.: J'ai. J'ai eu. J'honore. I have. I have had. I honor. 
J'ai honore. I have honored. 

23. E in Je, I, pronoun of the first person singular, is elided before 
verbs beginning with vowels or h mute, as shown in the foregoing 
examples. 

24. The elision consists in the dropping of the letters a, e, before 
vowels or h mute. The dropped letters are replaced by an apos- 
trophe (' 438). 

In order to avoid the disagreeable meeting of two vowels, with 
elision we write or read : 



* God is, in every language, is an independent sentence, where to be does 
not require complements. 



VERB. 



5 



J'ai 

J'aime 

J'honore 



) fJeai ) (I 

V instead of I Je aime > answering < I 

J ( Je honore J (, / 



I have, 
love, 
honor. 



Conjugation of the auxiliary Avoir, to have, affirmatively to the past 

anterior. 



Present. 

ai / have. 

Sing, -j Tu as Thou hast. 

H. ou elle a He or she has. 

{Nous avons We "} 

Vous avez You >have. 

lis ou elles ont They ) 



5 JTu 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Past Indefinite. 



J' avais 
Tu avais 
II avait 
Nous avions 
Vous aviez 
lis avaient 



J' eus 
Tu eus 
II eut 
Nous eumes 
Vous eutes 
Us eurent 



J' ai 
Tu as h 

II a 
Nous avons 
Vous avez 
lis ont 



Thou 

1 We 
You 
They 



have 
hast 
has 

have 



J' 


avais 


Tu 


avais 


11 


avait 


Nous 


avions 


Vous 


aviez 


lis 


avaient d 



Pluperfect. 

7* had 

Thou hadst 
He had 
1 We -\ 
You > had 
They J 

Past Anterior. 

/ had 

Thou hadst 
He had 

[ We 
You 
They 

» for idioms of avoir, to have, 



J' 


eus "J 


Tu 


eus 


11 


eut 


Nous eumes 


Vous 


eutes 


lis 


eurent 



► had 



Imperfect. 

I was 

Thou wast 

He was 

We were 

You icere 

They were 

Past Definite. 
/ did 
Thou didst 
He did 
We did 
You did 
They did 

See page 190 for Exercise 1, and No. 
The past anterior and pluperfect being rendered under the same 
form in English, in the English r6sum6 cases of pluperfect will be 
marked P. 

ain£, gene, pos£.* 

baa, bras, tracas, \aa, pas, « mute. 

id. id. 

cruchcms, ceinturorw, chaudrows, s mute. 
nez, rocher, pecker (10). 
k mow, ton, nom, non, t mute. 

RESUME OF THE FIRST EXERCISE 

on the auxiliary Avoir, to have, from the present indicative to the past 
anterior of the same mode. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 
1. J'ai. 2. lis avaient eu. 3. <F avais. 4. Vous aviez eu. 5. lis 
ont eu. 6. Tu avais. 7. Nous avions eu. 8. J'eus. 9. Tu as. 



Analogous 
sounds of the - 
syllables 



ai 

as 

a 

ons 

ez 

ont 



in the words 



* To obtain pure and clear sounds, the words should be divided into syl- 
lables. Ex. : ai-ne, gS-ne, &o. 



6 GRAMMAR. 

10. II avait eu. 11. Tu eus eu. 12. II on elle a. 13. II avait. 
14. Tu eus. 15. J'eus eu. 16. J'avais eu. 17. II eut eu. 18. Nous 
avons eu. 19. lis avaient. 20. J'ai eu. 21. Tu avais eu. 22. Tu 
as eu. 23. Nous eumes. 24. Vous aviez. 25. Nous avons. 26. II 
eut. 27. lis eurent. 28. Vous avez. 29. Nous avions. 30. II a 
eu. 31. lis eurent eu. 32. Vous avez eu. 33. Nous eumes eu. 
34. Vous eutes. 35. lis ont. 36. Vous eutes eu. 

The correct pronunciation of these French Exercises is our sub- 
stitute for impossible written precepts on orthoepy. 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. They had had, P. 2. I have. 3. I had had. 
4. Thou hast. 5. I had or was having. 6. They did have. 7^1 
have had. 8. You had had, P. 9. Thou hadst had. 10. You did 
have. 11. Thou wast having. 12. He has. 13. Thou hadst had, P. 
14. He had had. 15. We did have. 16. He was having. 17. We 
have. 18. We had had, P. 19. We had had. 20. He did have. 
21. We were having. 22. You have. 23. We have had. 24. You 
have had. 25. Thou didst have. 26. You were having. 27. They 
have. 28. He had had, P. 29. They have had. 30. I had or 
did have. 31. He has had. 32. They were having. 33. Thou hadst. 
34. You had had. 35. I had had, P. 36. They had had. 

See page 117 for the use of English resumes with substantives. 
Remark for Teachers. 

With the French resume, let the pupil construct on the blackboard tho 
English paradigm, and the French paradigm with the English re'sume'. Ap- 
plying to all our exercises on verbs, this remark indicates the best practice 
on that essential part of speech. 

QUESTIONS. 

20. Qu'est-ce qu'un verbe? 21. Quels sont les pronoms employes 
pour conjuguer les verbes? 22. Quelle est la place de ces pronoms 
dans les temps simples? quelle est-elle dans les temps composes? 
23. A quoi est assujetti le pronom Je de la premiere personne du 
singulier? 24. En quoi consiste T61ision de ce pronom? et quand a- 
t-elle lieu ? 



VERB. 7 

THIRD LESSON. 

t Verb. — Continued. 

25. Verbs, we have seen (20), express affirmations, or the exist- 
ence of persons and things in connection with qualities attributed to 
them. 

26. In every language etre, to be, is in reality the only verb. 
Am . r Is or different parts of speech, it alone expresses affirin- 

n. It may represent existence with all its modifications; for it 
may be said in French, as in corresponding terms in English: 

Je snis aimant, je snis etndiant; lam loving, I am studying. 

But brevity in speech has prevailed. In many instances it has 

been found preferable to express the verb and attribute by a single 

word (458,459). 

Ex.i 
J'aimo, 1 {' Je snis aimant ; I love, *) ( I am loving. 

Je lis, V instead of < Je snis lisant : / read, > instead of i I am reading. 
Je parle, J ( Je snis parlant ; / speak, J [i am speaking. 

27. When etre, to be, is presented under its simple form: 
Ex. : Je snis : I am, 

Je serai : I will be, 
it ia called substantive verb in French, because, existing of itself, 
it needs no complements (67 . 

28. Combined with its attribute : 

J'aime, *) f Je snis aimant ; / love, "j ( I am loving, 

Bring •{ Je snis lisant; I read, > for < I am reading, 
Je parle, J ( Je snis parla h\ J [l am speaking, 

or referring to an action or state, it is called adjective verb in French, 

predicate in English. 

29. Remark. — Besides affirmation (20), adjective verbs express 
actions performed by subjec* 

Ex. : Frapper, to strike ; conrir, to run. 

or state in subjects: 

Zxister. to exist; dormir, to sleep. 

30. A word is known to be a verb, when it can be placed after ne, 
pas. not, or between two negations (166). 

Lire, to read, parler, to speak, are verbs, because it may be said 
with them, in French or English : 

{Kb pas parler, not to speak. 
Ne pas lire, not to read. 
Xe mentir jamais, on xe jamais mentir, never to tell falsehoods. 



8 



GRAMMAR. 



31. Placed before infinitives, two negations will render the action 
of verbs negative. 

Ex. : Ne pas manger, not to cat. 

Ne jamais marcher, never to walk. 

See for exceptions No. 821 bis. 

Remark. — Conjugated affirmatively or negatively, verbs always 
express affirmations having a positive meaning. In the first case 
they affirm that something is ; in the second, that it is not (1178 bis.) 

Ex. : Je suis, je ne suis pas ; / am, / am not. 

Continuation of Avoir, to have, from the future indicative to the 
subjunctive mode. 

Future Anterior. 



J* aurai, 
Tu auras, 
II aura, 
Nous aurons, 
Vous aurez, 
lis auront, 



Future. 
i" shall 

Thou wilt 
He will 
We shall 
You will 
They will 



have. 



J' aurai 
Tu auras 
II aura 
Nous aurons 
Vous aurez 
lis auront 



eu, 



I shall 

Thou wilt 
He will 
We shall 
You. will 
They will 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Present. 



J* aurais, i" should 
Tu aurais, Thou wouldst 
II aurait, He would 
Nous, aurions* We should 
Vous auriez, You toould 
Us auraient, They toould 



' have. 



Past. 



J' 


aurais 


Tu 


aurais 


11 


aurait 


Nous 


aurions 


Vous 


auriez 


lis 


auraient t 



eu, 



/ should 
Thou wouldst 
He would 
We should 
You would 
They would 



IMPERATIVE MODE, 

Aie, 

Ayon 

Ayez 

See page 191 for Exercise 2, 



ns, [ 



(see 135) 



Have (thou). 
Let us have. 
Have (you). 



Analogous 
sounds of the ■ 
syllables 



rai, 


rez 


ras, 


ra 


rons 


, ront 


rais 




rait, 


raient 


riont 


» 



ratsin, raison. 
bras, traCftS, grntbas. 

the words \ r is f on .™iso H ,poltron(»75,977). 
braise, fraise. 
trait, portrait. 
Item, amphitryoij. 



k£sum£ of the second exercise. 



ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. J'aurais. 2. lis auront eu. 3. J'aurais. 4. lis auraient eu. 
5. Ayez. 6. Tu auras. 7. Yous aurez eu. 8. Tu aurais. 9. Vous 
auriez eu. 10. Ayons. 11. II aura. 12. Nous aurons eu. 13. II 
aurait. 14. Nous aurions eu. 15. Aie. 16. Nous aurons. 17. II 



VERB. 9 

aura eu. 18. Nous aurions. 19. II aurait eu. 20. Yous aurez. 
21. Tu aurais eu. 22. Yous auriez. 23. Tu auras eu. 24. lis 
auront. 25. J'aurais eu. 26. lis auraient. 27. J'aurai eu. 

Ox the Same. 
Written Practice. — 1. They shall or will have. 2. I should or 
would have. 3. They would or should have. 4. Have (thou). 5. I 
will or shall have. 6. They will or shall have had. 7. Thou wouldst 
or shouldst have. 8. You should or would have. 9. Let us have. 
10. Thou shalt or wilt have. 11. You will or shall have. 12. He 
should or would have. 13. We will or shall have. 14. He shall or 
will have. 15. Have (ye or you). 16. We would or should have 
had. 17. We should or would have. 18. He shall or will have had. 
19. We will or shall have had. 20. He should or would have had. 
21. You would or should have had. 22. Thou wilt or shalt have had. 
23. You will or shall have had. 24. Thou wouldst or shouldst have 
had. 25. I will or shall have had. 26. They would or should have 
had. 27. I should or would have had. * 

QUESTION 5 

25. Rappelez-nous ce qu'exprime le verbe? 26. Comment se fait- 
il que le verbe etre puisse exprimer tous les modes d' existence? 27. 
Comment appelle-t-on le verbe etre quand il se presente sous sa forme 
simple? 28. Comment Pappelle-t-on quand il est combine avec 
Pattribut ? 29. Qu'expriment les verbes adjectifs en outre de Famr- 
mation? 30. Comment reconnait-on qu'un mot est un verbe? 31. 
Comment rend-on Taction du verbe negative ? 



FOURTH LESSON. 

Modifications of Yeebs. 



32. To express their connection with number, person, mode, or 
time, verbs are subject to four changes or inflexions in their termi- 
nations. (See No. 121 and following.) 

NUMBER. 

33. Number is the inflexion taken by verbs in their termination 
to express their connection with the singular or plural. 



10 GRAMMAR. 

fj'estime, / esteem. 

Nous estimou8 f We esteem. 

Ex.: -j H estiwf, elle ou on.esti//je, He esteems, she esteems, or they esteem, 

Vous estimez, You esteem. 

y Tu estimes, Thou esttemest. 

PERSON. 

34. Person is the inflexion taken by verbs to show when their 
subject belongs to the first, second, or third person (372). 

{J'airaat, / loved, or did love. 

Tu aimcw, Thou lovedst, or didst love, 

II aima, He loved, or did love. 

MODE. 



35. Mode means manner. It is the inflexion taken by verbs to 

represent the manner of being of their subject. 

Ex.: 

Je travaille, or je suis travaillant, I work, or / am working. 
Je travaillerais, or je serais travaillant, / icould work, or / would he working, 
Travaillons, or soyons travaillant, Let us work, or let us be working. 
Travailler, or etre travaillant, To work, or to be working (26). 

36* There are five modes in French : the indicative, conditional, 

imperative, subjunctive and infinitive. 

31. The affirmation, action, or state of the subject with tenses of 

the indicative mode, are described in a direct positive manner (164). 

Each tense in this mode has a positive meaning. 

Present : Je travaille (1224) 1 work, do work, or am working. 

Imperfect : • Je travaillais, I worked, 

Past-definite : Je travaillai, / did work, 

Past-indefinite: J'ai travaille, I have worked,, 
Pluperfect: J* avais travaille, I had worked, 

Past-anterior: J' eus travaille, J had toorked, 

Future : Je travaillerai, / will work, 

38. In the indicative mode inflexions in French dispense with 
auxiliaries, such as shall or will used in English futures (32) ; should 
or would in conditionals (162 bis). 

J'aurai, I will or shall have. 

Tu aura«, Thou shalt or wilt have. 

II aura, He will or shall have. 

J' aureus, I would or should have. 

II amrait, He should or would have. 

39. The conditional represents the action or state as dependent on 
conditions (734). 

Ex.: Je travaillerais si je n'etais malade; Were I not sick I would work. 

40. The imperative expresses it as taking place through command 
or exhortation. 






Ex. 



VERB. 



11 



{Marche, Walk (thou). 

Marchons, Let us walk. 

Marchez, Walk (ye or you). 

In the foregoing examples the pronouns which are subjects in the 

French propositions, toi, nous, vous, are understood. 

41. Remark. — Except with reflective or pronominal verbs, no 
personal pronouns are used in French imperative modes, which 
are made up of three persons (119 bis) ; two second — one singular, 
the other plural — with but one first person plural. The third persons 
singular or plural in English imperatives are rendered by the same 
in French subjunctives. Therefore, personal pronouns used in French 
imperatives are objects of verbs. Ex.: aimez-moi; love me (625). 



Conclusion of the auxiliary Avoir; to have. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present. 

To express want ; llfaut 



V 



Quej' 


aie, 




/ 






Que tu 


aies, 




Thou 




Qu' il 


ait, 




He 


- must have. 


Que nous 


ayons, 




We 


Que vous 


ayez, 




You 




Qu' ils 


aient, 




They 




* 




Future. 






II 


faudra 


Quej' 


aie, 




V 


me 




Que tu 


aies, 




^< 


thee 




Qu' il 


ait, 




3 ?. 


him 


■ to have. 


Que nous 


ayons, 






us 


Que vous 


ayez, 




^ | 


you 




Qu' ils 


aient, 




1 


they j 








Imperfect. 




Ilfallait 


ou ilfaudrait 


Que j' 


eusse, 




h. 


me 




Que tu 


eusses, 




^ 


thee 




Qu' il 


eut, 






him 


to have, or it would be ne- 


Que nous 


i eussions 


J 




us 


cessary/or me to have, etc. 


Que vous eussiez, 






you 




Qu' ils 


eussent, 




2 


they 










Past. 






llfaut 


ou il faudra 


Que j' 


aie 




I 




Que tu 


aie3 




Thou 




Qu' il 


ait 




He 


must have had, or it will be n«- 


Que nous ayons 


• eu, 


We 


cessary for me to have had, etc. 


Que vous avez 




You 




Qu' ils 


aient 




They] 










2* 







U 



GRAMMAR. 



Pluperfect. 
II Jail ait ou ilfaudrait 



Que j* eusse 
Que tu eusses 
Qu' il eut 
Que nous eussions 
Que vous eussiez 
Qu* ils eussent 





me 


-=<> 


thee 


1 £ 


him 


g 9 - 




O ac 


us 


- * 




* - 


you 




. the y j 



to have had, or it was ne- 
cessary for me to have 
had, etc. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. Past. 
Avoir, to have. Avoir eu, to have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Past. 
Ayant, having. Eu, eue, had. 

COMPOUND. 

Ayant eu, or eue, having had. 

See page 192 for Exercise 3, and No. 988 for idioms. Use some of 
them on those r6sumes. 

Remark. — TVe do not design giving here a form of English sub- 
junctives; with a literal translation we show what this mode is in 
French. 

RESUME OE THE THIRD EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Ilfaut que j'aie. 2. Ilfaudrait que j'eusse eu. 3. Ilfaut qu'ils 
aient eu. 4. Ilfallait que j'eusse. 5. II faudra que j'aie. 6. II 
faut que tu aies. 7. Avoir. 8. Ilfaudrait que tu eusses eu. 9. II 
faut que vous ayez eu. 10. Ilfallait que tu eusses. 11. II faudra 
que tu aies. 12. II faut qu'il ait. 13. Ayant. 14. II faudrait qu'il 
eQt eu. 15. Ilfaut que nous ayons eu. 16. II fallait qu'il eut eu. 
17. 11 faudra qu'il ait. 18. 11 faut que nous ayons. 19. Avoir eu. 
20. 11 faudrait que nous eussions eu. 21. 11 faut qu'il ait eu. 22. 
11 fallait que nous eussions. 23. 11 faudra que nous ayons. 24. 11 
faut que vous ayez. 25. Eu. 26. 11 faudrait que vous eussiez eu. 
27. II faut que tu aies eu. 28. Ilfaudrait que vous eussiez. 29. 11 
faudra que vous ayez. 30. Ilfaut qu'ils aient. 31. Ayant eu. 32. 
11 faudrait qu'ils eussent eu. 33, 11 faut que j'aie eu. 34. H fal- 
lait qu'ils eussent. 35. 11 faudra qu'ils aient. 36. Eue. 

REMARK.-^-The inflexions of the past participle, eu or eue, sound 
alike. They are pronounced like the vowel u, and are found in the 
following substantives: Fiip, muc. fjlu^. rue. ivo. 



RB. 13 

Analogous sounds of the syllable ez are found in chez, pr£, aman- 
dier, having the sound of € closed (10). 

Ox THE SaJTE. 

Written Hraeti '■::.— L To have. 2. They must have had. 3. It 
will be necessary for me to have. 4. It was necessary for them to 
have. 5. I must have had. 6. It would be necessary for them to 
have had. 7. Having. 8. I must have. 9. It will be necessary for 
thee to have. 10. It was necessary for you to have. 11. Thou must 
have had. 12. It would be necessary for you to have had. 13. Had, 
14. Thou must have. 15. It will be necessary for him to have. 
16. It was necessary for us to have. IT. He must have. 18. It would 
be L: oave, 19. Having had. 20. He must have 

had. 21. It will be necessary for us to have. 22. It was necessary 
for him to ha^ _ We must have had. 24. It would be necessary 
for him to have had. 25. To have had. 26. We must have. 27. It 
will be necessary for us to have. 28. It was necessary for thee to 
have. 29. You must have had. 30. It would be necessary for thee 
to have had. 3L Had, JSL 32. You must have. 33. It will be ne- 
cessary for you to have. 34. It was necessary for me to have. 35. 
They must have. 36. It will be necessary for them to have had. 

QU 

32. A quels changements les verbes sont-ils assujettis en franeais? 
33. Q ijue le nombre dans les verbes? 34. Qu'exprime la 

personne ? 35. Quelle est Finflexion appelee mode ? 36. Combien 
y a-t-il de modes en franeais? 37. Qu 7 expriment les temps de Fin- 

39. Qu r exprime le conditionnel ? 40. Comment est representee Paffir- 
mation du verbe dans le mode imperatif ? 41. Qu'avez-vous a faire 
remarquer sur ce mode ? 



FIFTH LESSON. 
Mooes or Verbs. — Continued. 



42. The subjunctive represents the existence, state, or action of 
the subject in a subordinate dependent manner (477, 478). It leaves 
doubts on the results of that action (736). 



14 GRAMMAR. 

Ex. 

Je desire que vous remplissiez tos devoirs; 
I icish you icould accomplish your duties. 

43. Verbs in the subjunctive are always dependent on verbs in 
other modes.* It is the tense of the governing #erb which deter- 
mines in what tense the verb in the subjunctive must be used (476, 
454), without influence of conjunctions, as indicated erroneously in 
some methods and dictionaries. 

Ex.: 

Je ne crois pas que vous veniez; / do not believe you will come. 

Je ne croyais pas que vous vinssiez ; / did not believe you would come. 

44. In the first example the verb croire, to believe, in the present 
of the indicative, determines the use of the second verb, venir, to come, 
in the present of the subjunctive. In the last, the imperfect of 
the indicative, je croyais, I was believing, determines the second verb, 
venir, to come, to be in the same tense of the subjunctive. (736 and 
following.) 

45. Que faie, first person of the present subjunctive of avoir, to 
have, has no determinate meaning without its governing verbs. Pre- 
ceded by il faut, it is necessary, to express necessity, it refers to 
present want or dependence. With il faudra, it will be necessary, 
the state of dependence is the same, but refers to a future time. 

Ex.: 

Ufaut que je mange; I must (actually) eat. 

H faudra que je mange; I shall have (in time) to eat. 

46. When used alone, the imperfect of this mode has no determi- 
nate meaning. Preceded by je souhaiterais, I did wish, to express 
a wish, it refers to past indeterminate epochs. 

Ex.: 
Je souhaitais qu'il fut heureux; I wished him to be happy. 

47. The past, with craindre as governing verb to express fear, 
refers to past actions without specifying determinate times. 

Ex.: 

Je crains qu'il n'ait ete trompe (817); I fear (that) he has been deceived. 

48. The pluperfect, que j'eusse 6t6, having as governing verb 
esperer, to expect, to express wish or hope, represents actions depend- 
ent on possibilities. 

Ex.: 
H esperait que je me fusse trompe; He hoped that I would be mistaken. 



* The theory about the government of conjunctions requiring the verb 
following them to be in the subjunctive is a false one, as will be shown here- 
after (739). 



VERB. 



15 



49. The infinitive rep: khe action or affirmation expressed 
by verbs in a general way. without indication of time, number, or 
person. It niay be used also substantively as the nominative in pro- 
ions (66). 

Ex.: 

ioux de remplir ses devoirs ; It is sweet to accomplish one*s duty. 
Le trop manner, ou le boire, leur a fait Too much eating or drinking has made 
mal them sick (1230). 

50. Four of these modes, the indicative, conditional, imperative, 
and subjunctive, being susceptible of distinction in person, are 
thence called personal modes. On the contrary, expressing no 
distinction in person, the infinitive is termed impersonal tnode. I s 
substantively either for subject or complement, it follows the syntax 

/ostantives. (64^ 754. 756. 1228. 

Jttre, to be, conjugated from the present indicative to the past 
anterior of the same mode. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 





Preseht. 




1 


Past i>-pefi>tte. 


Je E 


/ am. 




r 


ai 




/ hate 


Tu 


Thou art. 




Tu 


U 




Thou hast 


n 


He is. 




n 


■ 


•rf 


He has 


We arc. 




f ^ 


We hare 


Yous " 


You arc 




ive* 




rant, 


They are. 




us 


ont J 


Th-y have 




IlIPERF 






PLUPERFECT. 


«P £) 


I was 


i 




avais 




I had 


Tu M 


Thou wast 


-o 


Tu 






thorn kmdH 


11 & 


He was 


§ 


11 




•tf 


He had 


Xous etions, 


We were 


- •« 

^ 


••ions 


~ 


We had 




You were 


* 
~ 








You had 


craieut, 


• They were 


•- 

c 




avaient 




Tkq kmd 


Past definite. 






Past anterior. 


Je fus, 


I was. 




J' 






I had 


Tu fas, 


T : .:i. mast. 




Tu 


eus 




Thou hadst 


n : 


He was. 




n 






He had 


S 


icere. 




Xouf 


BteMI 


■- 


We had 


Vous i.. 


You were* 








YOU r.V.i 


lis fureat, 


The$ mere. 




ns 


eurent 




They had 



See page 192 for Exercise 4. 

Remark. — In the following resumes we will mark with I the cases 
of imperfect, to distinguish them, in English, from the past definite. 
P, as usual, will mark the cases of pluper: ; 



16 GRAMMAR. 

RfiSUMfi OF THE FOURTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. lis sont. 2. J'ai ete. 3. lis eurent ete. 4. J'6tais. 5. lis 
avaient 6t6. 6. Vous etes. 7. Tu etais. 8. Je fus. 9. Tu as ete. 
10. Vous eutes 6te. 11. Vous aviez 6t6. 12. Nous sommes. 13. II 
6tait. 14. Je fus. 15, II a ete. 16. Nous eumes ete. 17. Nous 
avions ete. 18. Elle est. 19. Nous etions. 20. II fut. 21. Nous 
avons ete. 22. II eut ete. 23. II avait ete. 24. Tu es. 25. Vous 
etiez. 26. Nous fumes. 27. Vous avez ete. 28. Tu eus ete. 29. 
J'avais 6t6. 30. Je suis. 31. lis etaient. 32. Vous futes. 33. lis 
ont 6t6. 34. J 7 eus et6. 35. Tu avais ete. 36. lis furent. 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. I am. 2. 1 was. 3. I was, 7. 4. I had been. 
5. They had been. 6. I had been, P. 7. Thou art. 8. You were, 7. 
9. Thou wast. 10. They have been. 11. You have been. 12. TRou 
hast been, P. 13. She is. 14. We were, 7. 15. He was. 16. Thou 
hadst been. 17. We had been. 18. He had been, P. 19. We are. 
20. He was, 7. 21. We were. 22. He has been. 23. We had been, 
P. 24. They had been, P. 25. You are. 26. Thou wast, 7. 27. 
You were. 28. You had been. 29. We have been. 30. They are. 
31. They were, 7. 32. They were. 33. You have been. 34. I had 
been. 35. You had been, P. 36. Thou hadst been. 

suie, hruit, cris. 



f uis 
Analogous | es, est 
sounds of the -j ommes 
syllables j tes 
[sont 



8 sounds before vowels or h mute(977). 
in the words ■{ hommes, Qomme } somme. 
b£tes, tStes. 
k son, macon, &c. 



QUESTIONS. 

42. Comment Famrmation, ou Fetat du sujet, se trouve-t-il repre- 
sent6 dans le mode subjonctif ? 43. De quoi sont dependants les 
verbes employes au subjonctif? 44. Montrez-le-nous par unexemple? 

45. Employee seule quel est le sens de la premiere personne de Fau- 
xiliaire avoir ; et qu'exprime-t-elle quand elle est preced6e de llfautt 

46. A quelle 6poque se rapporte Fimparfait du meme mode? 47. 
Qu'exprime le passe? 48. Quelle est Faction que represente le plus- 
que-parfait? 49. Qu'exprime le mode infinitif? 50. Qu'appelle-t-on 
mode personnel et mode impersonnel? t 



VERB. 17 

Eemark. — To facilitate the memorizing of definitions, as part of 
exercises, we would suggest the translation of the preceding rules 
into French. The teacher will determine how far this suggestion is 
practicable for his pupils. Junior classes may be confined to the 
simple practice of verbs. 



SIXTH LESSON. 

Time of Verbs. 



51* Time is the inflexion taken by verbs to show to what part of 
duration corresponds the affirmation, state, or action which they re- 
present. 

It is divided into three parts : present, past, and future. 

Present (726). 

52. Showing the action as taking place when the words are uttered, 
the present cannot admit more than a single period of time. It has, 
consequently, but one tense : 

Ex.: 

Je chante, ^ ( I sing, I do sing, I am singing. 

II chante, > present indicative < He sings, he does sing, he is singing. 

Yous chantez, J [ You sing, you do sing, you are singing » 

Remark. — Simple in French, these expressions are rendered in 
English under three different forms. 

53. Representing the existence, action, or state of the subject 
as having taken place at more or less remote periods, admitting 
several degrees of anteriority, the past is made up of five tenses. 

Imperfect (728). 

54. In relation to past or elapsed periods of time, the imperfect 
represents the action as present. 

Ex.: 
Je lisais quand yous entrates ; / was reading when you came in. 

Past definite (730). 

55. The past definite represents the action as having taken place 
at periods of time completely elapsed or spent. 

Ex.: 

Je voyageai Tannee derniere; I did travel last year. 



u 



OTLAWMAIL 



Past indefinite (729). 
&&. The past indefinite represents the action as having occurred 
in the past, at periods which mav or mav not be completelr elapsed. 

Ex.: 



J'td In trier; 

J*ai ecrit anjonrdlroi; 



1 rwmd wwwmwe}en\ 
I wrote to-day. 



Past anterior. 
5*. The past anterior represents it as having taken place before 
another action, which also occurred in time past. 

Quand j "ens In, je partis; When I had ready I departed. 

Pluperfect (733). 

58. The pluperfect represents it as past of itself, in relation to 
another action equally past. 

J'aral* fini qnand toss Tintes ; I had dame when yam came. 

Future (734) 

59. Representing existence, state, or action to take place in time 
to come, the future admits of two degrees of posterio ri ty (893). 

Ex.: 
future: .Tetudierai : 



Iwritt or ekaU etmdw. 

I ■:■" :: iftsfl mam >v..dUi. 



59 bis. Eight tenses, as described in the foregoing paragraphs 

Contin ua t i on of tie verb litre: to be, from ike future indicative to 
i 1 :-; tubjumrfiM uunU. 







FUTURR. 


Je 


■ezai, 


I 


?v-:; ' 


Tn 


fr7ii 


Thov mmU 


n 


5-:b 


Hi 


will 


lM 




We 


m\eM 


ram 


: rT-r Z . 


Tom 


will 


L< 


seront, They 


trill J 








Je 


wuma\ 


I 


mmomU 


Wm 


•triii. 






B 


?rri::. 


He 


womid 


Warn 


:~Z~. '. ~ » 


We 


mmemU 


Vaarn 


*rr.rl. 


Tom 


mmid 


Ik 


wmmum 


L, Tkej would 




':::•:::: ::•..! v::>z. 




Pask 

I 



He 

W% 

Tom tcouid 



VERB. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Be {thou). 
:ns, Let us be. 

Be {ye or you). 
See page 193 for the 5th exerc 

C ra i i ( mara is, mauva is, panau. 

The inflexions irai > are fonnd in i serez, nez, rocher, rest. 
( raient ) ( ent is silent. 

RESOIE OF THE FIFTH EXERCISE. 
fcC PRACTICE. 
1. Je 2 3. Je serai. 4. lis auraient etc. 

5. Soyez. 6. Tu seras. .:s aurez ete. S. Tu serais. 9. V 

auriez ete. 10. Soyons. 11. H sera. 12. Xous aurons £te*. 13. II 
serait. 14. Xous aurions ete. 15. Sois. 16. X.us serous. 17. II 
aura ete. 18, Noofl prions. 19. H aurai: 2 us serez. 21. 

Tu aurais ere. 22. Vow Eyries. S3. Tu auras ete. 24. lis seront. 
L. Dssecaient 2~. J'aurais ete. 

Ox the Sake. 

Written Practice. — 1. I shall or will be. 2. They will or shall be. 
3. Be (you). 4. They would or should have been. 5. I should or 
would be. 6. Thou wilt or shalt be. 7. You will or shall have been. 

Thou woul i uldst be. 9. You would or should have been. 

10. I 11. He will or shall be. 12. "We shall or will have 

been. 13. 'We would or should be. 14. "VTe would or should have 
been. 15. Be (thou). 16. We shall or will be. 17. He will or shall 
have been. 1 -hould or would be. 19. He would or should 

have been. 20. Thou wilt have been. 21. Thou i halt have 

been. 22. Y:u would or should be. 23. Thou wouldst have been. 24. 
They will or shall have been. 25. I shall or will have been. 26. 
7 would or should be. 27. I would or should have been. 

QUESTIONS. 

51. Quelle est la modification du verbe appelee temps, et en com- 
bien de parties le temps se divise-t-il ? 52. Qu'est-ce que le present ? 
53. Comment divise-t-on le passe? 54. Comment est representee 
Taction du verbe dans Finiparfa:: zmient Test-elle par le passe" 

defini? 56. Qu'exprime le passe, ou preterit indefini? 57. Comment 
ination du verbe par le preterit ant£rieur? 
Comment Fest-elle par le plus-que-parfait ? 59. Qu'exprime le 
fatur, et comment se di ibien y a-t-il de temps 

pour exprimer les trois divisions de la duree ? 




20 GRAMMAR. 

SEVENTH LESSON. 

Conjugation. 

60. To conjugate is to write or recite the different modes, tenses, 
perso?is, and number of verbs (35, 59 bis, 34, 33). 

61. There are four conjugations or classes of verbs, distinguished 
from each other by the termination of the present infinitive. 

6$. f first conjugation ") 

Verbs of the J f *?°\ nd " I have the termination, 
| third " or ending, in 

[fourth * J 

Ex.: 

1. Aimer, manger, chanter, To love, to eat, to sing. 

2. Finir, courir, mourir, To finish, to run, to die. 

3. Recevoir, pouvoir, voir, To receive, to be able, to see. 

4. Prendre, rendre, vendre, To take, to render, to sell. 

63. Remark. — Inflexions, in Erench, replace the preposition to, 
which always precedes the English infinitive. The final R is never 
sounded in verbs of the first conjugation (973). It is always sounded 
in verbs of the second and third. 

SUBJECTS OF VERBS. 

64. The subject is the object of the aflirmation. It is the person 
or thing whose existence is expressed by the verb; or the person 
or thing performing the action mentioned. It is called, also, 

nominative (271 bis). 

65. In order to find that subject, these queries are placed before 
verbs : 



Qui est-ce qui ? 
Qui est-ce que? 




Who? for persons. 
What? for things. 


Ex.: 






Je lis. *| 

Tu etudies. > Query : 

Le fruit tombe. J 


f qui lit ? 
•j qui etudie? 
( qu* est-ce qui 


Who reads? 
Who is studying? 
tombe? What falls? 


f Moi, 
Answers: \ Toi, 

( Le fruit, 




/(21). 
77? ou. 
The fruit. 



66. Verbs, in personal modes (50), must have a subject expressed 
or understood. In the impersonal mode of the infinitive, where 
the affirmation, state, or action is expressed in a general way, there 



VERB. 21 

is no subject, either expressed or understood. Infinitives used for 
subjects become substantives (457). Le boire, le manger, etc. (1230). 

When employed to conjugate verbs in compound tenses, avoir and 
tire are called auxiliaries (160), auxiliaires in French. 

Continuation of the auxiliary, Eire: to be. from the present subjunctive, 
to the conclusion of that verb, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Que 







Present. 








II fata 




Je 


sois 




I 


Tu 


sois 




Thou 


11* 


soit 




He 


Xous 


soyons 




We 


Vous 


sovez 




You 


lis 


soient 




n* 



mutt be. 



Future. 
II faudra 





fJe 
Tu 






. a 


me 






- 




.s^ 


thee 




Que - 


11 
Xous 


soit 

soyons 




1 ; ' 


h m 
us 


to be* 




Vous 


soyex 




25 ^ 


you 






:*** 


soient 




m 


Jhey 


» 








Imperfect. 








Ilfallait 


on Ufaudrait 






fJe 


fusse 






'me 






Tu 

n 


fusses 
fut 




X 

§ * 


thee 
him 


to be, or it would be 


Que - 


Vous 


fussiona 
fussiez 




S 9 ■ 


M 

you 


necessary for me to 

be } etc. 




Ha 


fussent 




^ 


them 










Past. 








Ilfaut on il faudra 






\ J ' 


aie 




/ 






Tu 


aies 




Thou 


must have been, or 


Que « 


n 


ait 


- 6t6, 


Re 


it will be necessary 


Xous 


ayons 


We 


for me to have been, 




Vous 


ayez 




You 


etc. 




. Da 


aient 




r&«y < 





* Observe the rule of elision. 



2-' 







GRAMMAR. 










Pluperfect. 






Ilj 


'allait ou il faudrait 




J' 

Tu 

n 

Nous 

V0U8 

lis 


eusse 

eusses 

eut 

eussions 

eussiez 

eussent 


It icas 
necessary for 


me 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

. the y . 


to have been, or it 
would be necessary 
for me to have been, 
etc. 



Que 



INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. Past. 

Etre, To be. Avoir 6t§, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. 

Etant, Being. Et6, Bern. 

Compound. 
Ayant et6, Having been. 

See page 193 for Exercise 6, and No. 1008 for idioms: use some on those 
rSsum§s. 



RESUME OF THE SIXTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Ilfaut que j'aie 6t6. 2. Ilfaut que je sois. 3. Ilfaudra qu'ils 
soient. 4. II f allait que je fusse. 5. Ilfaudrait qu'ils eussent 6te. 
6. Ayant ete. 7. Ilfaut que tu sois. 8. Ilfaudra que vous soyez. 
9. II f allait que tu fusses. 10. Ilfaut que tu aies ete. 11. Ilfaudrait 
que vous eussiez 6te. 12. Ilfaudra que tu sois. 13. Ilfaudra que 
nous soyons. 14. II f allait qu'il fut. 15. Ilfaut qu'il ait ete. 16. 
Ilfaudrait que nous eussions ete\ 17. Ete. 18. Ilfaut que nous 
soyons. 19. II faudra qu'il soit. 20. II fallait que rious fussions. 
21. II faut que nous ayons ete\ 22. II faudrait qu'U eut ete\ 23. 
Etant. 24. U faut que vous soyez. 25. i7 faut qu'il soit. 26. JZ 
fallait que vous fussiez. 27. II faut que vous ayez 6t6. 28. JZ 
faudrait que tu eusses ete. 29. Avoir ete. 30. Ilfaut qu'ils soient. 
31. II faudra que je sois. 32. J? fallait qu'ils fussent. 33. Ilfaut 
qu'ils aient ete. 34. Ilfaudrait que j 'eusse ete\ 35. Etre. 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. Having been. 2. I must be. 3. It will be 
necessary for me to be. 4. It was necessary for them to be. 5. I 



must have been. 6. It would be necessary for me to hare been. 
7. To be. 8. Thou must be. 9. It will be necessary for thee to be. 
10. It was necessary for yon to hare been. 11. Thoa mast hare 
been. 12. It would be necessary for you to have been. 13. Been. 
14 He most be. 15. It will be necessary for him to be. 16. It was 
necessary for us to be. 17. He must have been. 18. It would be 
necessary for him to hare been. 19. Being. 20. We must be. 21. 
It will be necessary for us to be. 22. It was necessary for him to 
be. 23. We must hare been. 24. It would be necessary for us to 
hare been. 25. To have been. 26. You must be, 27. It will be 
necessary for you to be. 28. It was necessary for thee to be. 29. 
You must have been. 30. It was necessary for you to have been. 
They must be. 32. I: will be necessary for them to be. 33. It 
was necessary for me to be. 34. They must have been. 35. It 
would be necessary for them to have been. 

QUESTIONS. 

60. Qu appelle-t-on conjuguer un verbe? ' 61. Combien y a~t-il de 
classes de verbes en francais? 62. Quelles sont les terminaisons 
qui distinguent ces classes? 63. Quelle est la remarque a faire But 
la prononcialion de la finale R dans linfinitif present de ees con- 
jugaisons? 6-L Qu'est-ce que le sujet d'un verbe? 65. Comment 
reoonnai:-::: or jT::: 66l QaeJ e?: k ufexk |ui n'a pafl z-t si:;r:s. ez 



EIGHTH LISSOX. 
Ofnopunsyrs o? Vz?.zs. 



6*. Complement are wiris lypftplBinig idea* bftfiim "by otibcf 
words: they are called also regimen in French; via.: objects or ( 
pUmemts in English (302, 355, 388, 413). 

Ex.: 

L" amour de Fetnde (70), The Ure ofttmdy, 

e * Fhomme. Uterml to mam. 

rmimm Din (69), I lit* God, 



GRAMMAR. 



are parts of sentences where the words : 

I>e l'etude, of study, ^ ( a substantive (302), 

A rhomme, to man, > complement 6f-j an adjective (357), 

Dieu, God, ) (a verb (69), 

stand for complements of ideas commenced by the words : 
1/ amour, The love. 

Utile, Useful. 

J'aime, / love. 

68. Some verbs have two complements or objects, each expressing 
different connections of their subject (709). One is direct, the other 
indirect. Both may be simple or complex (463, 473, 75). 

Direct complement, or direct object. 

69. "What completes the idea begun by the verb, without help of 
other words, is called direct complement or object. It answers the 

queries : 

Qui ? Whom ? for persons. 

Quoi? What? for things. 

Ex.: 

J'aime les enfants sages, / love good children. 

J'etudie la grammaire, / study grammar. 

QUERY : ANSWER .* 

J'aime qui ? Whom do I love f Les enfants sages, Good children. 

J'etudie quoi? What do I study? La grammaire, Grammar. 

Remark. — Every active verb taking a preposition in English, such 
as to steal, to take, to pay, to buy, to ask, &c, according to this 
general principle of French syntax, must drop it and take direct 
objects in French. 

Indirect complements, or indirect objects. 

TO. The indirect complement, or indirect object, is what com- 
pletes indirectly the same idea. It answers the queries: 

Qui? Whom ? for persons. Quoi? Why ? for things, preceded by 
one of the prepositions a, de, pour, dans, etc. The choice of the 
prepositions depends on the nature of the verb. 

Ex.: 

J'obeis (t mon maitre, / obey (to) my master. 

J'etudie pour mon instruction, I study for knowledge. 

query: answer: 

J'obeis a qui? Whom do I obey? A mon maitre, To my master. 

J'etudie pour quoi? Why do I study ? Pour mon instruction, "For knowledge. 

Tl. Remark. — Some of the pronouns stand for direct objects. 
Such are: 

Le, la, les, que, Him, her, it, them, that. 



VERB. Zb 

On account of the preposition which is contained in them, others 
on the contrary are indirect. 

Ex.: 
Lui, elle. leur, dont, en, r, standing for: d lui, d elle, de cela, d'eux, 

d'elles. etc. 

Answering : 
\im, of her, of them, of which, of that, etc., representing persons or things 

in French. 

T2. Me, te se, nous, vous, eux, /, thee, they, we, you, us. 

are sometimes direct complements, or indirect in other case3 (374). 
When used for indirect objects they represent always persons, not 
things (637). 

73. These pronouns are direct complements or direct objects when 
they stand for (69) 

Moi, toi, lui, nous, vous, etc. Me. thee, him, ice, you, etc. 

Ex.: 

Fieuratire f ? ™' e5ti ^ 1 Grammatical f " ^TT^'' f" wfT" m * 

= . < Je ^appelle, > . .. < J appelle-foj, I call thee. 

construction | n ^ * * ^ J construction | n ggSJ # e /attera himself. 

As such they cannot be used for subjects of verbs, unless through 
pleonasm 

Ex.: 

Moi je resume, I do esteem him. 

Remark. — The mental or direct construction, in French, answers 
always to the grammatical construction in English. 

74. They are indirect objects when they answer to: 

A moi, d toi, d lui, d nous, a vous, To me, to thee, to him, to us, to you, 

a eux to them, 

.FIGURATIVE CONSTR. GRAMMATICAL COSSTR. 

II II parle a moi, He speaks to me. 

Je t* donne un line, Je donne un livre a toi, I give a book to thee. 

II se nuit, II nuit & lui, He prejudices (to) himself, 

Xous e'crivons d nous, We \crite to ourselves. 

Je pomj reponds, Je r£pondf I ansicer (to) yaw. 

Remark. — With direct constructions, the absence of prepositions 
poirr id objects; their use indicates indirect ones. Leur, leurs; 

tlieir. in every case brings to mind the direct and indirect object; 
and so it is with possessive adjectives (366). 

Ex.: 

r s onf | erdu U m chapeaux, ") f T±s ont perdu le» chapeaux d'eux. 

Us ont repris leur cheval, lis ont repri3 le cheval d'eux. 

Elles ont donne leur avis, J Lea ont donne favis belles. 



26 



GRAMMAR. 



standing for : They have lost their hats. They have retaken their 
horse. Each gave their advice. 

In both languages, the possessive adjectives nion, ton, son. notre, 
votre, leur ; my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, bring to mind the idea 
of an object with that of its possessor: Ex. : Mon livre, my book, 
answering to : Le livre k nioi, the book to me, etc. 

75. Etre ; to be, has no complements (466). Passive, neuter, or 
intransitive verbs have or may have for complement (70) indirect 
objects. Active or transitive verbs have or may have two comple- 
ments or objects, one direct, the other indirect, each expressing 
different connections with the subject of verbs. Ex. : Je le yois, 
nous le lui donnons.* 

Verb, Chanter ; to sing, first conjugation in ER, affirmatively ; 
from the present indicative, to the past anterior of that mode. 

Stem of this model verb, Chant. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 







Present. 




Past Indefinite. 




Je 1 




e / si ng. 


J* ai 


I have 




Tu 


«a 


es Thou singest. 


Tu as 


v o Thou hast 




n 




eg 


e He sings. 


H a 


■g He has 


•r 


Nous 




ons We sing. 


Nous avons 


O "Sou Y have 


Vous 


ez You sing. 


Vous avez 




lis ( 




ent They sing. 
Imperfect. 


Us out 

Pi 


<y J 

LEPERFECT. 




Je ) 




ais / teas 


^ 


J* avais 


/ had been ' 




Tu 


^ 


ais Thou wast 


= •£• 


Tu avais 


v - Thou hadst b'n 


?»> 


11 

Nous 

Vous 




ait He icas 
ions We ire re 
iez You were 


Hi 


11 avait 
Nous avion s 

Vous aviez 


"c He had been 
V You } I g 


* 


lis 




aient They were 




lis avaient 


They J ** J 


, 




p. 


lst Definite. 


Pas 


t Anterior. 




Je ] 




' ai / did 




J' eus 


/ had 




Tu 




as Thou didst 




Tu eus 


*o Thou hadst 




11 


1 


a He did 


^ 


11 eut 


g He had 


- e 
3 


Nous 


• & • 


ames We did 


■ .£ 


Nous eumes 


J TTe ] 


Vous 


o 


ates You did 




Vous eutes 


O You V had 




lis t 




erent They did 




Us eurent 


They J 




See 


page 11 


)5 for exercise 7. 







* When placed before verbs, personal pronouns objects reject hyphens. 
They dispense also with that sign wlfen indirect objects, and placed after 
verbs from which they are separated by prepositions. Ex. : Je le prend. Je 
vais a ML Je parle d'eux. Donnes-en. 



VERB. 27 

e 1 Chante, chantes, chante??*, are pronounced the 
Analogous sounds in -j es J- same, except when the final consonant pre- 
ent J cedes a vowel or h mute f 



RESUME OF THE SEVENTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Je chante. 2. lis chantaient. 3. Je chantai. 4. lis ont chante*. 
5. J'eus chante. 6. lis avaient chante. 7. Tu chantes. 8. Vous 
chantiez. 9. Tu chantas. 10. Vous avez chante. 11. Tu eus 
chante. 12. Vous aviez chante. 13. 11 chante. 14. Nous avons 
chante. 15. Nous chantons. 16. 11 eut chante. 17. Nous avions 
chante. 18. Vous chantez. 19. Nous chantions. 20. 11 chanta. 
21. 11 a chante. 22. Nous eumes chante. 23. II avait chante. 24. 
lis chanterent. 25. Vous eutes chante. 26. Tu avais chante. 27. 
lis chantent. 28. Je chantais. 29. Nous chantames. 30. Tu as 
chante. 31. lis eurent chante. 32. J' avais chants. 33. Tu chan- 
tais. 34. Vous chantates. 35. J'ai chante*. 36. II chantait. 

On the Same. 
Written Practice. — 1. I had been singing. 2. I was singing. 3. 
They sing. 4. I sang. 5. They had sung. 6. I have sung. 7. 
You sing. 8. Thou wast singing. 9. Thou sangest or did sing. 
10. You had sung. 11. We sing. 12. He was singing. 13. You 
sang or did sing. 14. Thou hadst sung. 15. We had sung. 16. 
You had been singing. 17. He sings. 18. We were singing. 19. 
He sang or did sing. 20. We have sung. 21. He had sung. 22. 
They had been singing. 23. Thou singest. 24. You were singing. 
25. We sang or did sing. 26. He has sung. 27. Thou hadst sung. 
28. We had been singing. 29. I sing. 30. They were singing. 
31. You have sung. 32. I had sung. 33. Thou hadst been singing. 
34. They sang or did sing. 35. He has been singing. 36. They 
have sung. 

QUESTIONS. 

67. Qu'appelez-vous complements ou objets directs? 68. Les 
verbes ont-ils plusieurs complements? 69. Qu'appelle-t-on comple- 
ment direct? 70. Qu'est-ce qu'un complement indirect? 71. Quels 
sont les pronoms complements directs, et quels sont ceux qui sont 
indirects? 72. Comment s'emploient me, te, se, etc.? 73. Quand 
sont-ils complements directs? 74. Dans quel cas sont-ils indirects? 
75. Quels sont les verbes susceptibles d' avoir des complements, et 
quel est le seul verbe qui ne peut en avoir ? 



2$ 



NINTH LESSON. 
Adjective Ti 

*6» There are five kinds of ad; - tran- 

sit n /euter or intransit: :. :»minal or re- 

. and unipersonal [254 Hf which are called impersonal 
jramniarians. 

??. A ;:rre or transitive verbs express actions perform i 
subject, and transmitted to direct complements or objects {£r 
\ to have, for auxiliary in their compound tenses. 
I page 26. 

Ex.: 
J'aime man pere, I love w 

Hmb let MitiMwn Nous lee arons We esteem them. We have este em ed 

I MMBf appaise 7<a eol^re, Meehnese abates anger. 

t § . A verb is known to be active or transitive, when inimediatehr 
after it the words quelqu'un, quelque chose; somebody, something, may 
be pb 

Ex.: 

CTimf at: loc-: where Ike verb and attribute are 

roRi: parted. 

Aimer, *] ( Etre aimant, 

> o« -j Etre finissant, To finish, I- or j ft be finishing, 

r, J -■: oerant, To receive. f ...;. 

are active or transitive verbs ; because it may fce said of each : 

Ex.: 



Aimer qnelqn'nn, _ " .-■? < i ■■: v ■: '. -\ . 

Finir, reeeroir qnelqne chose, _~ ~ . - : •■ > .- -- : - "■ ■ -. 

T 9 . 'he contrary of active verba. They i jj p«j m 

I suffered whence their name of 

passive. The j far auxili ■ 

x.: 

Les bons Beront rSeomper. ; 
Les meehacts eeront punis, 

SO. The subject of a passh I made with the direct com- 

plement of an active one. 



SI. 

Wbm Mmml rim! limm\ M ln ri utfM i ■ ** %■* 

Tumti mi 11/ Vim* ■«■ frf it, nam*i :: tmwmwB} hilin, 

In the first example firere, ortffc-r, the direct complement or object 
of flie transitive verb, aimer, to fore, becomes the actual subj cct of 

_ r .:r i 5r By m m ri h i m gg 

■mj he prifrd liter ftok frmmin] bj |jre|mfitimwj tfcej farm ■»- 

.:; ■::: :" ;t::s "■" . 

Ex.: 

Hk rf: umm A imitaVMj AW h Ummm ;->■ iwii% 

par quelque chose, J9fe £# distmried my somtetkimg*. 

Rmam.— S:ine neuter verbs may be conjugated passively : such 
are e&urir, movrtr, etc.: though exceptions to Rule 80, they ] 

ill -Jif lUiHtir? :■: rissi-r -r:":«. 
Ex.: 



Ex.: 

' i— - ; : 1 : :- ; It :'::;:--!:f J "-• : : - r * ~ \ r,: - _.- " - • . -■ - » ■ • -• • -: - - • -: 

:::r:f ilf ::~: :Vilr 1 ;li .jn :-.- _: ■-_.•.'-■■-■--■•_.■ ■ -: / -"'.-■ ■ _j.> -- 

:;r:.ri:r.".:L -': -v-z'i:-:i ':-•:* z :•:•:. 

S3. Tlrrr is :^1~ :~r ::^~zi~.- ::r -liii-r --rl? _"1 . 

S 4 . The past participle of an active verb, through all its simple 
Imam conjugated with the auxiliary, efcrc, io be, or in compound 
:^-=.r5 — l"li iir :— : i-ixiliirlr^ : :z::i::-ri. ~ 11 : :r~ :lr 7 :-:~r -;::r. 
mil so commonly used in Trench as in En_ 

85. In these conjugations participles must agree in gender and 

always the case with, retieetive verbs 1 7>-). 
1 = 



* I:: Mm maamn mi IwmUi ---:£. 7. :;;-:. 



30 



GRAMMAR. 



86. Many expressions passive in English are generally rendered, 
in French, by the transitive or reflective voice. 
Ex.: 



Ces maisons sont & vendre, 

Cet honinie est meprise, 

Cette femme se repent, 

Ces enfants se rejouissent, 

lis se sont arroge ce droit (85, 784), 



Those houses are to be sold. 

That man is to be despised. 

That woman is repentant. 

Those children are rejoicing. 

They arrogated that right to themselves. 



Continuation of Clianter, to sing, from the future of the indicative, 
to the subjunctive mode. 



Future. 



Je ' 




Tu 




11 




Nous 


A 


Yous 


Q 


lis J 





Future Anterior. 



Je 1 




Tu 


„ 


11 

Nous 


p 
xi 


Vous 


o 


lis 





erai 


/ shall 




J' aurai 




I shall 


eras 


Tli ou wilt 




Tu auras 


w 


Thou wilt 


era 


Me will 


ba 


11 aura 




Me will 


erons 


We shall 


" . 8 


Nousaurons 




We shall 


erez 


You will 




Vous aurez 


o 


You will 


eront 


They will 




lis auront 




They will 




CONDITIONAL MODE. 






Present. 


Past. 


erais 


/ should 




J* aurais 




I should 


erais 


Thou wouldst 




Tu aurais 


*s> 


Thou wouldst 


erait 


Me would 


555 


11 aurai't 




Me would 


erions 


We should 


' .» 


Nous aurions 


' o3 


We should 


eriez 


You would 




Vous auriez 


O 


You would 


eraient 


They would 




lis auraient 




They would 




IMPERATIVE MODE. 










'e Sing (thou). 








Chant - 


ons Let us sing. 










. ez 




Sing (ye or ; 


you) 





See page 196 for 8th exercise. 

Model of interrogative forms. — Chanterai-je ? Est-ce que je chante- 
rai? (167). 

RESUME OF THE EIGHTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Je chanterai. 2. lis auront chante. 3. Je chanterais. 4. lis 
auraient chant6. 5. Chantez. 6. Tu chanteras. 7. Vous auref 
chante. 8. Tu chanterais. 9. Vous auriez chante. 10. Chantons. 
11. II chantera. 12. Nous aurons chante. 13. II chanterait. 14. 
Nous aurions chante. 15. Chante. 16. Nous chanterons. 17. II 
aura chante. 18. Nous chanterions. 19. II aurait chante. 20. 
Vous chanterez. 21. Tu auras chante. 22. Vous chanteriez. 23. Tu 



VEBB. 31 

amis chant£. 24. J 7 aurais chante. 25. lis chanteront. 26. J'aurais 
chanty, ;_". Di ; hanteraient. 

Written Practice, — 1. Sing (ye or you). 2. I would or should sing. 
3. They shall or w I will or shall have sur. Ihou 

shouldst or w lug. 6. They would or should have sung. 

Thou shalt or wil: He should or would sing. 9. You should 

or would hav: fhall or will sing. 

15 He will or shall have sung. 13. We will or shall sing. 14. We 
should or would sing. 15. We would or should have sung. 16. We 
shall or will hav^ ::!d or should sing. 18. He will 

or shall sing. ill or will have sung. 20. You will or 

shall ha^ 21 I fa e old or should have sung. 22. Thou 

wooJd&t or shouldst have sung. 23. Thou shalt or wilt have sung. 
-- 1 will or shall ha~ should or would have 

song - ^ing (thou). 27. I will or shall sing. 

QUEST 

Bmde verbes adjeetifsl "" Qn 

qu'un v^ _: ou tzai "^ Comment reconnait-on ces 

iu T entend-on par verbe pass:: ; mment forme-t-on 

lesujet d ? un verbe pass -nous cela par un exemple? 

- _ Comment reconnait-on qu'un verbe est passif ? 83. Combien y 

41 de conjugal* :rez-nous comment 

rijuguen: :us a faire remarquer sur 

le participe employe dans ces conjugaisor Emploie-t-on aussi 

souvent la voix passive en francais qu'on ne le fait en anglais ? 



TENTH I 

In-transitive Yesbs. 



h t . Intransitive or neuter v~ : — neither active nor passive — 

have no direct complements or direct objects. They reach their 

: ugh prepositions " A 
Ex.: 

Je raia en Italic, I go to Italy. 

Je travaille are? courage, I work with courage. 

Bk : zzz bwc wUmmw^ She runs with rapidity. 



32 GRAMMAR. 

The preceding examples show a perfect concordance of principles 
between the two languages. 

88. These verbs may express state in the subject, or indicate 
actions performed by that subject (29). 

Ex.: 

J'existe, Je marche, Je parle, I exist, I walk, I speak* 

89. Verbs are known to be intransitive when the words : 
Quelqu'un, quelque chose, Somebody, something, 

cannot be added to them. 

Marcher, dormir, rire, parler, etc. To walk, to sleep, to laugh, to speak, etc. 

are intransitive, because you cannot say with thenn 

Marcher quelqu'un, dormir quelque To walk somebody, to sleep some- 
chose, thing. 

90. Intransitive verbs have the termination of the class to which 
they belong (62). 

Marcher, dormir, rire, are verbs of the first, second, and fourth 
conjugations. 

91. Intransitive or neuter verbs may be used transitively. It is 
when they have a direct object ; viz. : reached without prepositions (69). 

Ex.: 
J'apprends a parler ma langue, i" learn to speak my language. 

92. Transitive verbs (77) may be used intransitively. It is when 
they have an indirect object (70); viz.: reached through prepositions. 

Ex.: 

J'etudie avec application, I study with application. 

In the first example the intransitive verb, parler, to speak, is 
used transitively, no preposition intervening between the verb and 
its direct object, langue, tongue. In the last the transitive verb, 
6tudier, to study, having no direct object, is used intransitively ; 
application, the indirect complement, being reached through the pre- 
position avec. 

Pronominal or reflective verbs (262, 1147 ter). 

93. Eeflective verbs are conjugated with two pronouns of the 
same person (374) ; the first for subject, the last for object. 

Ex.: 

Je me, tu te, il se, nous nous, vous vous, / myself, thou thyself, he himself, 
ils se, etc. 



VERB. 33 

These pronouns are inseparable, except when pronominal verba 
are conjugated interrogatively (265). 

Ex. 

Je me flatte *) (Je flatte moi "| ( I flatter myself . 

Tu te flattes > for < Tu flattes toi V answering i Thou flatterest thyself. 

II se flatte J (il flatte lui J (He flatters himself. 

Meflatt6-je? Te flattais-tu? Do I flatter myself f Didst thou flatter 

thyselft 

94. Eeflective or pronominal verbs are those in which the subject 
and object are the same thing (64, 69), as shown in the foregoing 
examples. 

95. They are classed according to the terminations of the present 
infinitive, requiring etre, to be, with the meaning of avoir, to have, 
used as auxiliary in English. 

Ex.: 

Se flatter, To flatter one's self *) though under the reflective form, are 

S'abstenir, To abstain one's self \ verbs of the first, second, and third 

Se voir, To see one's self J conjugations. 

Je me suis flatted answers in English to, I have flattered myself, 
or the direct French" construction: J'ai flatte moi; a sentence in 
which the auxiliary, etre, to be, is used for avoir, to have. 

96. Reflective verbs are divided into two classes: essentially re- 
flective and accidentally reflective. Like passive verbs, their subject 
suffers the action expressed (79), but it is performed upon itself (1164). 

Ex.: 

Je me suis foule le pied, I sprained my foot. 

97. They are essentially reflective when they cannot be conjugated, 
in French, without the help of two pronouns. 

Such are: 

Se repentir, se souvenir, s'abstenir, To repent, to remember, to abstain one's 

self (262). 
Je m'abstiens de parler, I abstain from speaking. 

Elle se repent de sa faute, She repents her fault. 

98. Conjugated with two pronouns, verbs become accidentally re- 
flective when they may be used actively with one (785). 

Se louer, se flatter, s'admirer, To flatter, to praise, to admire one's self, 

are accidentally reflective ; because we may say, with those verbs, 
Je flatte, je loue, j'admire, I flatter, I praise, I admire. 

99. Among the first class of pronominal verbs, viz.: those essen- 
tially reflective, s'arroger, to attribute to one's self, is the only one 



34 



GRAMMAR. 



whose subject and direct complement are not the same thing; because 
the second pronoun employed with that verb is not a direct object, it 
being reached through the preposition a, to, expressed in English, 
though understood in French (69, 

It is said with that verb, Tous vous etes arrogS ces droits, in- 
stead of: 

Vous avez arroge' ces droits a tous, You attributed those right* to yourself. 



100. Among verbs occasionally reflective the following have not 
the same thing for subject and direct complement: because reached 
through the preposition a, to, that complement is an indirect object 
(71). 



Ex.: 

Je me suis donne la 
peine d'y aller, 

Yous vous etes achete 
du pain, 

Xous nous sommes 
procure cela, 



J'ai donne la peine d I gave trouble to myself 

moi d'y aller, to go. 

f or , Tous arez achete du You bought bread for 

pain d yous, yourself, 

Nous avons procure We procured that to our - 

cela d nous, selves. 



101. Eeflective verbs using etre. to he, in their compound tenses, 
with the meaning of avoir, to hav-:. must agree with the 

subject which is represented by the reflective pronoun (776, 95), 
unless that pronoun be an indirect objf : Nioiu nous sommes 

repentis, nous nous sommes arroge. 

Ex.: 
Totre pere s'est ass:?. \ fa assis lui, 

£ or j ont flatte eux, 



imis se sont flat- 

Votre sceur *'est ressou- 
venue de lui, 



Your father has seated 

himself. 
Your friends have fat- 
themselves. 
.venue elle de Your sinter remembered 
lui, him. 



10'2. Participles of reflective verbs agree with the direct object 
of these verbs. They remain invariable when that object is indirect 
"77), or when the direct object follows the participle. 

Ex.: 

Mesdames, vous f romp£es, Ladies, you have been mistaken* 

Elles se sont donne la peine, They have given trouble to themselves. 

Participles being invariable words in English, this part of syntax 
has been thought indispensable at this place. 



VERB. 35 

Unipersonal verbs (264 bis). 

103* Unipersonal verbs are those conjugated in the third person 
singular of each tense. The nominative pronoun il, it, used abso- 
lutely, viz.: without subject, is the apparent subject of the sentence 
(374). The real subject of the verb is understood. 

Ex.: 
II pleut, il faut, il y a, il neige, It rains, it is necessary, there is, it snows. 

104. "We say apparent subject, because with those verbs the 
pronoun il, it, is. not the real subject of the sentence. It takes its 
place and announces it. The real subject goes after the verb, 
under the form of complement. So, instead of saying : 

Un Dieu est dans le ciel, God is in heaven, 

Etudier est necessaire, Study is necessary, 

Le temps est pluvieux, The weather is rainy, 

we say with unipersonal verbs, either in English or French, 

II est un Dieu dans le ciel, .There is a God in heaven. 

II est necessaire d'etudier, It is necessary to study. 

II pleut, It rains. 

105. Intransitive, passive, or reflective verbs are occasionally used 
as unipersonal verbs. 

Ex.: 

II tombe de la pluie, It rains. 

H a ete pris des mesures severes, Stringent measures have been taken. 

H se presente une difficulty, A difficulty is rising. 

Remark. — When governed by unipersonal verbs, verbs are used in 
the subjunctive, connected with the conjunction que; or in the in- 
finitive without prepositions (738 bis, 739) in French. 

Ex.: 

II faut, il faudra qu'il vienne, He must, it will le necessary for him to 

come. 
H faut, il faudra venir, You must come, or you will have to come. 

Verbs governed by may, in English, are always rendered in French 
by present infinitives. 

Ex.: 

Puis-je venir? Pouvons-nous aller? May I come f May we got 
. Je puis venir. Nous pouvons aller, / may come. We may go. 

4* 



36 



GRAMMAR. 



Que 



Que 



Que ■ 



Que 



Conclusion of Chanter; to sing. 

To express necessity.* 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present. 



Je 
Tu 

n 

Nous 
Tous 
lis 



Je 

Tu 

II 

Nous 

Vous 

lis 



Que 



rj' 
Tu 

n 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 



Chant ■ 



Chant 



II faut 



e 

ions 

iez 

ent 

Future. 

II faudra 
e 

es 
e 

ions 

iez 

ent 

Imperfect. 



Thou 
He 
We 
You 
They 



Ilfdllait ou ilfaudrait 



Chant 



asse 

asses 

at 

assions 

assiez 

assent 



Past. 
II faut on il faudra 



aie 

aies 

ait 

ayons 

ayez 

aient 



Chante 



Pluperfect. 



I 

Thou 

He 

We 

You 

They 



fj' 


eusse 


Tu 


eusses 


11 


eut 


Nous 


eussions 


Vous 


eussiez 


lis 


eussent 



Ufallait on ilfaudrait 



Chante 



must sing. 



*■. 


me 


S's 


thee 


3 g» 


him 


j» e - 




"* a: 


us 


N § 


you 


s 


them 



to sing. 



V. 


'me 


^ 


thee 


j* 


him 


e -j 






us 






o . 


you 


g 


them 





(me 


thee 


S 1 j 


him 


8 1 




«o 


118 


c 


you 


C 


them 



to sing, or it would be 
necessary for me 
to sing, etc. 



must have sung, or it 
will be necessary 
for me to have sung, 
etc. 



to have sung, or it 

would be necessary 
forme to have sung, 
etc. 



* To express command, replace H faut, 
J'ordonnerai. 



H faudra, by: J'ordonne, 



VERB. 37 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



Present. 
Chanter, To sing. 



Past. 
Avoir chants, To have sung. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. 

Chantant, Singing. Chante" -ee, > Sung. 

Compound. 
Ayant chants, having sung. 

See page 197 for Sth exercise. 

RESUME OF THE NINTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. II faudra que je chant e. 2. II fallait qu'ils chantassent. 3. 
II faut que je chante. 4. II faut qu'ils aient chante. 5. II faudrait 
que j'eusse chante\ 6. Chanter. 7. II faut que tu chantes. 8. II 
faudra qu'ils chantent. 9. II fallait que vous chantassiez. 10. II 
faut que vous ayez chante. 11. II faudrait que vous eussiez chante. 
12. Avoir chante. 13. II faut qu'il chante. 14. II faudra que tu 
chantes. 15. II fallait que nous chantassions. 16. II faut que nous 
ayons chante. 17. II faudrait que nous eussions chante. 18. Chantant. 
19. II faut que nous chantions. 20. II faudra qu'il chante. 21. II 
fallait qu'il chantat. 22. II faut qu'il ait chante\ 23. II faudrait 
qu'il eut chante\ 24. Chants. 25. II faut que vous chantiez. 26. 
II faudra que nous chantions. 27. II fallait que tu chantasses. 28. 
II faut que tu aies chante\ 29. II faudrait qu'ils eussent chante\ 
30. Ayant chante. 31. II faut qu'ils chantent. 32. II faudra que 
vous chantiez. 33. II fallait que je chantasse. 34. II faut que 
j'aie chante. 35. U faudrait que tu eusses chants. 36. Chantee. 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. 1 must sing. 2. It will be necessary for them 
to sing. 3. It was necessary for me to sing. 4. They must have 
sung. 5. It would be necessary for them to have sung. 6. To sing. 
7. Thou must sing. 8. It will be necessary for you to sing. 9. It 
was necessary for thee to sing. 10. You must have sung. 11. It 
would be necessary for you to have sung. 12. Singing. 13. He 
must sing. 14. It would be necessary for us to sing. 15. It was 
necessary for us to sing. 16. We must have sung. 17. It would be 
necessary for us to have sung. 18. To have sung. 19. We must 
sing. 20. It will be necessary for him to sing. 21. He must have 



38 GRAMMAR. 

sung. 22. It would be necessary for him to have sung. 23. Sung, 
M. 24. You must sing. 25. It would be necessary for you to sing. 
26. You must have sung. 27. It would be necessary for thee to have 
sung. 28. Having sung. 29. They must sing. 30. It would be 
necessary for me to sing. 31. It would be necessary for them to 
sing. 32. I must have sung. 33. It would be necessary for me to 
have sung. 34! Sung, F. 35. It would be necessary for him to sing. 
36. It will be necessary for him to sing. 



QUESTIONS. 

87. Qu'appelez-vous verbe neutre? 88. Qu'expriment ces verbes 
qu'on nomme aussi intransitifs? 89. Comment reconnait-on qu'un 
verbe est neutre ou intransitif ? 90. Comment classe-t-on les verbes 
neutres? 91. Peut-on employer les verbes neutres d'une maniere 
active ou transitive? 92. Les verbes actifs sont-ils quelquefois em- 
ployes intransitivement? 93. Comment se conjuguent les verbes 
pronominaux ou reflechis? 94. Qui a-t-il a faire remarquer sur ces 
verbes? 95. Comment les classe-t-on? 96. En combien de categories 
sont-ils divises? 97. Quand sont-ils essentiellement r6fl6chis? 98. 
Comment sait-on qu'ils sont accidentellement reflechis? 99. Qui 
a-t-il a faire remarquer sur le verbe reflechi s'arroger? 100. Tous 
les verbes reflechis ont-ils leur complement direct pour sujet? 101. 
Quel auxiliaire emploie-t-on avec les verbes pronominaux ou reflechis? 
102. Dans quels cas les participes de ces verbes sont-ils sujets a 
Taccord? 103. Qu'appelez-vous verbe impersonnel ou unipersonnel? 
104. Qu'entendez-vous par sujet apparent d'une sentence? 105. Quels 
sont les verbes qui sont quelquefois employes d'une maniere uni- 
personnelle? 



Observation.— Through the few hints given in our remarks on pronuncia- 
tion, on account of the numerous inflexions marking mode, tense, number, 
person, and their numerous repetitions of the same sounds, teachers will per- 
ceive that verbs are the best part of speech for practice in pronunciation, 
therefore let the plan summarily indicated be followed in accordance with 
this principle, and a twofold gain will be the result. 



VERB. 



39 



ELEVENTH LESSOX. 
Verbs. — Continued. 
The following verbs may be given for exercises to pupils. 



To meet, to board a ship. 

To walk, to go (1091). 

To seek. 

To form. 

To authorize. 

To /latter. 

To disdain. 

To drag, etc. 



Guided by the model verb, Chanter, to sing (pp. 26, 30, 36), 
adding the proper endings to the stem of those verbs, they will also 
observe the following rules. 



Aimer, 


To love. 


Aborder, 


Danser, 


To dance. 


Marcher, 


Donner, 


To give. 


Chercher, 


Demander, 


To ask. 


Former, 


Sauter, 


To jump. 


Autoriser, 


Frapper, 


To strike. 


Flatter, 


Porter, 


To carry. 


Dedaigner, 


Parler, 


To speak. 


Trainer, 



Remarks on verbs of the first conjugation, ending in er. 

106. (1.) In verbs ending in cer, c has a cedilla (c.) under it, 
when coming before a, o ; without the cedilla, c before a and o sounds 
like*. 

Ex.: 

Je menacais, nons placon3, I was threatening, ice place. 

In this manner are conjugated the following verbs: 



Avancer, 


To advance. 


Influencer, 


To influence. 


Amercer, 


To prime. 


Lancer, 


To throw. 


Balancer, 


To balance. 


Menacer, 


To threaten. 


Divorcer, 


To divorce. 


Percer, 


To perforate. 


Ensemencer, 


To sow. 


Pincer, 


To pinch. 


Enf oncer, 


To break up. 


Prononcer, 


To pronounce. 


Forcer, 


To force. 


Renoncer, 


To renounce. 


Gercer, 


To chap. 


Sucer, 


To suck. 


Glacer, 


To freeze. 


Tracer, 


To trace. 



107. (2.) Verbs ending in ger add e after g, when that letter is 
followed by a or o. 



Ex.: 
Je mangiais, nous mangeons, 



I was eating, we eat. 



40 



To spare. 
To swim. 
To divide. 
To plunge. 
To protect. 
To arrange. 
To ruin. 
To gnaw. 
To destroy. 
To dream. 
To revenge. 
To travel, etc. 

Verbs in er, having the final syllable of the infinitive preceded 
by a closed 4, such as considirer, rfyler, before mute syllables 
change the closed 6 into open I, 

Ex.: 

Je considere, qu'il considere, I consider, let him consider, 

Je regie, je reglerai, que je regie, I rule, I will rule, let me rule. 



u 


GRAMMAR. 


Thus are conj 


iigated : 




Affliger, 


To afflict. 


Menager, 


Alleger, 


To alleviate. 


Nager, 


Allonger, 


To lengthen. 


Partager, 


Arranger, 


To fix. 


Plonger, 


Changer, 


To change. 


Proteger, 


Charger, 


To load. 


Ranger, 


Corriger, 


To correct. 


Ravager, 


Dedommager, 


To indemnify. 


Ronger, 


Heberger, 


To entertain. 


Saccager, 


Interroger, 


To interrogate. 


Songer, 


Juger, 


To judge. 


Venger, 


Manger, 


To eat. 


Voyager, 



Thus are conjugated the following verbs: 



AccelSrer, 


To accelerate. 


Moderer, 


To moderate. 


Ceder, 


To give up. 


Operer, 


To work. 


Cele'brer, 


To celebrate. 


PerseVerer, 


To persevere. 


D 6 ceder, 


To die. 


Preferer, 


To prefer. 


Beregler, 


To unsettle. 


R6gner, 


To reign. 


Dig6rer, 


To digest. 


R6iterer, 


To reiterate. 


Esperer, 


To hope. 


Temperer, 


To temper. 


Exceder, 


To exceed. 


TolSrer, 


To tolerate, etc. 


Liberer, 


To liberate. 







Verbs ending in £ger, such as proteger, abre'ger, are exceptions, 
always retaining the acute accent ( r ) on e preceding g, 

Ex.: 

J'abrege, tu protegeras, I abbreviate, thou wilt protect. 

Verbs in er, having the final syllable of the infinitive preceded 
by e mute, such as lever, mener, change the e mute into open e be- 
fore silent syllables : 

Ex.: 



Lever, je leve, je leverai, 

Semer, tu semes, il semerait, seme, 



To raise, I raise, I tcill raise, 
To 8oto, thou sowest, sow. 



10S. Verbs ending in eler, eter, such as appeler, to call; Jeter, 
to throw, double the consonants I or t before e mute. 

Ex.: 

J'appelle, j'appellerai, I call, I will call, 

Qu'il jette, il jetterait, Let him throw, he would throw. 



VERB. 



41 



But in all other cases it must be spelled with a single I or t: 



Nous appelons, vous appelez, 
II jeta, ils jeterent, etc. 



We call, you call, 

Me threw, they threw, etc. 



because the vowels following I, t are not e mute. 
Thus are conjugated: 



Acheter, 


To buy. 


Becqueter, 


To pick. 


Cacheter, . 


To seal. 


Caqueter, 


To talk. 


Crocheter, 


To hook. 


Decacheter, 


To unseal. 


Jeter, 


To throw. 


Projeter, 


To project. 


Rejeter, 


To reject. 



Souffieter, 




To slap. 


Amonceler, 




To heap up. 


Appeler, 




To call. 


Ensorceler, 




To bewitch. 


Epeler, 




To spell. 


Etinceler, 




To shine. 


Ficeler, 




To entwine. 


Greler, 




To freeze. 


Harceler, 




To plague. 


;al authority, 


we 


may not dou 


To 


buy. 




To 


torture. 


To disclose. 


To 


freeze. 


To 


pest. 




To 


peel off. 



I or t in the six following verbs: 

Acheter, 

Bourreler, 

Deceler, 

Geler, 

Harceler, 

Peler, 

and we write with open e : 

J'achete, je bourrele, ils decelent, il gele, nous harcelerions, vous 

peleriez. 

(2.) The doubling of the consonants I, t, never takes place in 
the verbs rec6ler, reveler, dicriter, empi6ter, interpreter, inquiiier, 
rCpeter, vtgtter; those verbs ending in the infinitive with 4ler, iter, 
not with eler, eter (see 108). 

HO. (3.) Verbs ending in yer — payer, to pay, balayer, to sweep — 
change y into i before e mute. 

Ex.: 

Je paie, je nettoie, Ipayj I clean. 

Some writers maintain y before e mute, in verbs ending in ayer: 
do not follow their example. 

Ex.: 

Je paye, j'essaye, je payerai, j'essayerai, I pay, I try, I will pay, I will try. 

(4.) Verbs in ier — crier, to cry; prier, to pray — double the i in 
the first and second persons plural of the imperfect indicative. The 
same persons in the present subjunctive are governed by the same 
rule. 



42 



GRAMMAR. 



Ex. 



Nous criions, vous criiez, 
II faut que nous priions, 
II faudra que vous priiez, 



We used to cry, you used to cry. 

We must pray. 

You will have to pray. 



111. (5.) Verbs having their present participle in yant or iant, 
take i after y or i, in the persons indicated in' the preceding remark, 
changing y into i before e mute (110). 

Ex.: 



Nous balayions, vous balayiez, balaie, 
Thus are conjugated: 



We sweep, you used to sweep, sweep. 



Balayer, 


To sweep. 


Deploy er, 


To display. 


BSgayer, 


To stammer. 


Effrayer, 


To frighten. 


Cotoyer, 


To coast. 


Employer, 


To employ. 


Coudoyer, 


To elbow. 


Noyer, 


To drown. 


Defrayer, 


To defray. 


Rudoyer, 


To act roughly. 


Delayer, 


To delay. 


Ployer, 


To bend. 



112. (6.) Verbs having their infinitives in 4er, such as creer, 
agreer, to create, to agree, retain the two e s through the whole con- 
jugation: 

Ex.: 

Je cr6e, tu crSes, je crSerai, 

except before the vowels a, o, i. 
Ex.: 



I create, thou createst, I will create, 



I did create, we did create, we create. 
You did create. 



Je creai, nous crSames, nous croons, 
Yous creiez, 

In past participles these verbs have three e s in their feminine form. 

Ex.: 



Une chose cr£ee, agreee, 


A thing created^ agreed. 


Thus are conjugated: 




Creer, To create. 
Recreer, To recreate. 
Recreer, To amuse. 


Gr6er, To rig a ship. 
Agrger, To agree. 
Supplier, To replace, etc. 



Applied to any of our exercises, the conjugation of these verbs 
may be given to pupils. In this manner they will acquire the in- 
dispensable knowledge of modes, tenses, number, and persons. 
Familiarized with the peculiar endings of those modifications, and 
made practically acquainted with pure French sounds, their ear will 
effect what impossible orthoepic treatises or pronouncing dictionaries 
can never do. 



VERB. 



43 



Conjugation of the verb Finir, to finish, second conjugation in ir, 
from the present indicative to the past anterior of the same mode. 

Stem of that model verb Fin. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present. 



Je 




' is / 


jini8h. 


Tu 




is Thou 


finishest 


n 


- Fin • 


it He 


finishes. 


Nous 


issons We 


finish. 


Vous 




issez ' You 


finish. 


us j 




is sent They 


finish. 




Imperfect. 




Je 




issais / 


was 


Tu 




issais Thou 


wa8t 


11 


- Fin > 


issait He 


was 


Nous 


issions We 


icere 


Vous 




issiez, You 


were 


Us ; 




issaient They 


were 




Past Definite. 




Je * 




r is / 


did 


Tu 




is Thou 


didst 


11 

Nous 


► Fin ■ 


it He 
imes We 


' did 


Vous 




ites You 


Us .. 




w irent They 


. 




Past Indefinite. 




J' 


ai 


/ 


have 


Tu 


as 


Thou 


hast 


11 


a 


■ fini We 


has 


Nous 


avons 


have 


Vous 


avez 


You 


have 


lis 


ont 


They 


have 




Pluperfect. 




J' 


avais 


I 


had 


Tu 


avais 


Thou 


hadst 


11 


avait 


■ ™ We 1 




Nous 


avion s 


■ had 


Vous 


aviez 


You 


Us 


avaient - 


They 


. 




Past Anterior. 




J* 


eus 


I 


had 


Tu 


eus 


Thou 


hadst 


11 


eut 


«* We } 




Nous 


eumes 


■ had 


Vous 


eutes 


You 

They J 


Us 


eurent 


„ 





finishing. 



jinish. 



finished. 



finished. 



finished. 



44 GRAMMAR. 

He mark. — Verbs of this conjugation ending in enir will have 
their past definite in ins (130, 144). 

The three persons singular of the present indicative and the 
same of the past definite having but one form, we mark with J the 
persons of the first tense. 

See page 198 for the tenth exercise. 

RESUME OF THE TENTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Je finis. 2. lis finissaient. 3. Je finis, J. 4. Tu finis. 5. Yous 
finissez. 6. Tu finis, J. 7. Nous finissons. 8. II finit, J. 9. Nous 
finimes. 10. II finissait. 11. Yous finissez. 12. II finit. 13. Nous 
finissions. 14. Yous finites. 15. Tu finissais. 16. lis finissent. 17. 
Je finissais. 18. lis finirent. 19. J'ai fini. 20. lis eurent fini. 21. 
J'avais fini. 22. Tu as fini. 23. Yous eutes fini. 24. Tu avais fini. 
25. II a fini. 26. Nous eumes fini. 27. II avait fini. 28. Nous avons 
fini. 29. H eut fini. 30. lis avaient fini. 31. Yous avez fini. 32. 
Nous avions fini. 33. lis ont fini. 34. Tu eus fini. 35. Yous aviez 
fini. 36. J ; eus fini. 

Model tor Negations. 
Je ne finis pas, nous n'eumes pas fini (164). 

Remark. — Sons, indicates a first person plural of the present in- 
dicative. 

Sions, the same of the imperfect of that mode. 

Rons, a first person plural of the future. 

Rions, the same of the conditional. 

Attention to the above general principles on the endings of verbs 
will simplify their memorizing. 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. I finish. 2. They were finishing. 3. I fin- 
ished. 4. I have finished. 5. They had finished. 6. I had finished, 
P. 7. Thou finishest. 8. You were finishing. 9. Thou hast finished, 
P. 10. Thou hadst finished. 11. I had finished. 12. Thou wast 
finishing. 13. They had finished, P. 14. He finishes. 15. We were 
finishing. 16. He finished. 17. We have finished. 18. He had fin- 
ished. 19. Thou hadst finished, P. 20. We finish. 21. He was fin- 
ishing. 22. We finished. 23. He finished. 24. We had finished. 



VERB. 

25. He had finish- 27. Thou wast finishing. I 

Yon finish. 29. They hare finished. 30. Yon had finished. 31. We 
had finished P. 3 - i»ed. 33. I was finishing. 34. They 

had finished. 35. Ton had finished, P. 36. Yon have finished. 

quest: - 

106. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur les verbes de la premiere 
conjugaiaon termines en ear I " . Quels sont les cas ou la lettre g 
doit etre suirie d"un e muet? 108. Qu'aYez-vous a faire remarquer 
sur les Terbes termines en 4fcr 9 tterf 109. Quel changement 
eprourent les rerbes terminus en er 7 qnand la derniere syllabe de 
lenr mfinitif est preeedee d'un e muet? 110. Quelle remarque avez- 
tous a faire snr les Terbes termines en yer, tels que payer? 111. 
Quels souk le - - qui prennent i apres y, dans Timparfait de 

Findieatif et dans le present du subjonetif : et quelles sont les per- 
sonnes de ees temps qui sont soomises a cette addition? 112. Quelle 
remarque avez-yous a faire snr les verbes termines a Finfinitif par 
tinr, oumm trior f 



TWELPTH Li- 
gation of Te: 



113. Primitive tenses are used in forming the others. Their 
number is fire, — riz. : 

Tz3 ? 7 z s i>t LTfamn . Chanter, finir, reeeyoir, yendre. 

Tmb Pkeseyt Participle. Chantant, finissant. recevant, vendant. 

Chante-ee. Sm -le. yendu-ue. 

Tke Pbjkssst of thu Indicative, Je ehante, Je finis, Je re^ois, Je vends. 

Je ehan : • . Je re^us, Je yendis. 

114* Derivative tenses are formed from the primitive. 

115. The present of the infinitiTe form- 

(L) The future in changing s of the first and second conjuga- 
tions; ois of the third; re of the fourth inco rai (131). 



To love y I icill lo9€ or shall love. 
7 - ■'..'■" - i% or shall finish. 
Beec* "era, Tk i. I will qt shall receive. 

i-ender or aha 11 render. 



■•aMVa- 



: r- T^r.: ,.:-::::- 


il 1- d 


i^z^L-g 7 ::•. .-.i In:.: li.:.: 11- . 








Ainf ~. |Umi nil 

J.f-:-:- • ;t r-T-r- -■:■./ 




T* Sm^ I mUmM mw»m J 1mm. 



(L) The three pcuwM plural of ike Judicative in 

in:.: :>f l: l:- : 11- 



in; 







117. Terbs of tfce And 

; :tl>7. li iir iLlr-i. 
fr z: -15 rnlf. 



-fi'' v — ~: -'■ 7'.-* /*;: 
which 



Ef *K1 










Li 
2.7- 



;- ; 10* :; 



•fl 






b. 
Mi 

tm 1 



'U 



m 1mm. 



!■ .;.,,- 1 ■ ■ Vm\ m i 



mmm UW 



vm 



Kemaek. — Past participles used with avoir remain invariable; 
connected with, itre, they agree with their subject in gender and 

numU: 

119 bis. — The present indicative forms the imperative, in dropping 
the personal pronoun subjects tu> nous? vous 7 and 3 characteristic 
of the second person singular of the first conjugation (133 and 
following). 

Ex.: 
Tu donnes, donne; nous donnons, Thou givest, give (thou) / let us for*/ 
donnons; tous donnez, donnez, give (jeor|'; •% 



Remark. — In this personal mode the pronouns are 
in French, and no auxiliary is required, contrary to the Eifcgiiflk 

syntax. 

120. The past definite forms the imperfect of the subjunctive, in 
changing ai in asse, in the first conjugation, adding only a to tfee 
three others. 

Je donnai, que je donn asse, I ga/v9 T that I migkt (f$m. 

Je finis, qne je finis ie, I finished* i 

Je re^us, qne je reg 1 Fw% bat Imdqht % 

Je rendis, qne je rendii 

See 126, 141, and follow. 



Continuation 


q/Tinir, to finish, from the future to the subjunctive mode. 






VwwwmL 




Je 




irai I will 
Thou shalt 


1 


Tu 






n 

Nous 


- Fin ■ 


ira He shall 
irons We will 


fmUL 


Voas 




irez Yau shall 




Ha 




iront They shall 
FrTCTtE Axfehiob. 




J' 


anrai 




/ will 




Tn 


auras 




Thou shalt 




n 

Nous 


aura 
izr 1 z 


3 


„ . He shall 
' "^ We will 


r have finished. 


Tons 


aurez 




You shall 




Ik 


auron 




They shall j 








C03TDITI0yAL MODE. 








Ikm 




Je 1 




r irais I would 




Tn 




irais Thou shouldst 


m 


H 




irait He should 




Nous 


> Fin - 


irions We would 


- jktu.i* 


Yous 




iriez 




us j 




ira 


lent They should 








48 









GRAMMAR. 












Past. 




J' 

Tu 
11 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 


aurais 

aurais 

aurait 

aurions 

auriez 

auraient 




■ fini, 


Thou 
He 
We 
You 
They 


should 

wouldst 

would 

should 

would 

would 


have 






IMPERATIVE MODE. 




(is, 
Fin-j issons 
( issez, 


9 




Finish (thou). 
Let us finish. 
Finish (ye or you) 



See page 199 for Exercise 11. 

Orthoepic treatises cannot define the difference between the endings 
ai, rai, in the past definite or future, and ais, rais, in the imperfect 
of the indicative or conditional mode ; yet contrasting the sounds ai, 
rai, with ais, rais, practical teachers may use those combinations of 
letters as standard sounds, which will guide learners whenever they 
meet those combinations in other words. This applies to the endings 
of other tenses. 



KESUME OF THE ELEVENTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Je finirai. 2. J'aurai fini. 3. lis finiront. 4. J'aurais fini. 
5. Finis. 6. Tu auras fini. 7. lis finiraient. 8. Tu aurais fini. 9. 
Vous finiriez. 10. Finissons. 11. 11 aurait fini. 12. Vous finirez. 
13. II aura fini. 14. Nous finirons. 15. Finissez. 16. Nous aurions 
fini. 17. Nous finirions. 18. Nous aurons fini. 19. Tu finiras. 20. 
Vous auriez fini. 21. II finirait. 22. 11 finira. 23. lis auraient 
fini. 24. Tu finirais. 25. Vous auriez fini. 26. Je finirais. 27. lis 
auront fini. 

Model for interrogative forms. 
(See Nos. 164, 165.) 



-Finirai-je? Est-ce que je finirai? 



On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. Let us finish. 2. I should or would have 
finished. 3. They would or should have finished. 4. I shall or will 
have finished. 5. They shall or will finish. 6. Finish (thou). 7. 
Thou wouldst or shouldst finish. 8. You should or would finish. 9. 
Thou wilt or shalt finish. 10. We will or shall finish. 11. Finish 
(you). 12. He would or should have finished. 13. "We would or 



VERB. 49 

should finish. 14. He will or shall finish. 15. He will or shall have 
finished. 16. He should or would finish. 17. We should or would 
have finished. 18. You will or shall finish. 19. We shall or will 
have finished. 20. Thou shouldst or wouldst have finished. 21. 
You would or should have finished. 22. Thou wilt or shalt finish. 
23. You will or shall have finished. 24. I would or should finish. 
25. He would or should have finished. 26. I shall or will finish. 
27. They will or shall have finished. 

Teachers may substitute for the verbs used in the above resume's, 
some subject to exceptions; the parsing now and then of some pro- 
positions will prove of great advantage to learners. 

See idioms of tenir, No. 1060 bis, in order to use some with the resumes of 
the second conjugation. 

QUESTIONS. 

113. Qu'appelez-vous temps primitifs? 114. Comment se forment 
les temps derives? 115. Combien de temps sont-ils formers par 
Tinfinitif present? 116. Quels sont ceux formes par le participe 
present? 117. Quelle est la classe de verbes exceptee de cette regie? 
118. Quelle en est la seconde exception? 119. Quels sont les temps 
form6s par le participe pass£? 119 bis. Quel est celui que forme le 
present de Pindicatif? 120. Quel temps du subjonctif forme le 
passe* defini? 



THIRTEENTH LESSON. 

Spelling op Verbs, and their Characteristic Endings in each 
Mode, Tense, Number, or Person. 

This, with the following lesson, are most important for learners. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present. 
121. In verbs of the first conjugation, the first person singular 
of this tense ends always in e mute. 

Ex.: 

J'aime, I love, 

Je parle, I speak. 

Je mange, / eaU 



H 

Any rerb, -whatever b* Hm wejngaiiioiL. en-Iisf wish f 
£r?T pcum ■■^■1n l WfMi w s in tihe seco&I pons. In inas 









_-. i '_..-.. • :•_ — jl ": • :«f.:~g? :.: ii: _7r". :••: nj ~.ri _ : ~ - ."...■■;■",■• :•: n-? 



WldlT. 



Zz -:--f. - " •• •■••• _ : "^ :^ - '• t r :* 



123. I- 5.— = 7-:* :: :_- :*:cnl v:;irii- - ±izi ;*: 
M : _ i ' f :_l r ~ f r ; f 



n 



124. T- 7*.— £ :: :l.i: :c7_i.. lz ±t 
L~\.-± in :y=- z: i:T 11" . 

Ex.: 



i/ * \Yz-..* nZ, ) 



:: ndl 



■ : "if r. : zz ' * . T • 



VERB. 



51 



IMPERFECT. 
125. The imperfect of the indicative mode ends always in ais, 

AIS, AIT, IONS, IEZ, AIENT. 



J' 

Tu 

II 

Nous 
Yous 
lis 



Je 

Tu 
II 

Nous 
Yous 
lis 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 





ais, 


Je 




'ais, 


Tu 


- aim ■ 


, ait, / was loving, 
ions, etc. 


H 

Xous 




iez, 


Vous 




aient, 


Us 


SECOND 


CONJUGATION. 






tssais, 


Je 




tssais, 


Tu 


> Fin ■ 


i'ssait, I was finish- 
issions, ing, etc. 


11 

Xous 




Vssiez, 


Yous 




?'«*aient, 


lis 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



- Rec- 



et-ais, 

euais, 

erait, 

erions, 

eriez, 

eiaient, 



I was receiv- 
ing, etc. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



- Ren > 



dais, 

cZais, 

o?ait, 

c?ions, 

eZiez, 

daient, 



I was 

rendering, 

etc. 



See pages 26, 43, 60, 71. In the four conjugations these endings of the 
imperfect have the same sounds, which correspond to those of the condi- 
tional (132). J'aimais, J'aimerai*. 



Que* 



Que 



Conclusion of the verb Finir, to finish. 

To express will or command. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 







Present. 






II veut ou il ordonne 


r Je ' 




' isse 


me 


Tu 




isses -S 


thee 


11 

Xous 


- Fin ■ 


isse 5 
issions "J 


him 
us 


Yous 




issiez {^ 


you 


.113 J 




issent 

Future. 
II voudra 


them 


r Je 1 




' isse "2 


me 


Tu 




isses 


thee 


11 

Xous 


> Fin - 


fese ^ 


him 




issions 'g 


us 


YOU3 




issiez £ 


you 


. Us 




issent «| 


them 



to finish. 



■ to finish. 



* Remember the rule of elision of e (438). 



52 



GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 
II voulait ou il voudrait 



Que 



r Je ; 




Tu 




11 

Nous 


■ Fin - 


Vous 




> Ils 





isse 

isses 

it 

issions 

issiez 

issent 



8'- 





me 


&N 


thee 


K 


him 


8 

S 


us 


g 


you 




them 



to finish, or he would 

want me to finish, 

etc. 



Past. 
II veut ou il voudra, etc. 



Que 



Que ■ 



y 

Tu 

II 

Nous 
Vous 
Ils 



J' 

Tu 
II 

Nous 
Vous 
Ils 



aie 

aies 

ait 

ayons 

ayez 

aient 



- Fini 



Pluperfect. 





me 


* 


thee 


8 


him 


§ " 






U8 


tS 3 


you 




them 



to have finished, or he 

will want me to have 

finished, et%. 



II voulait ou voudrait 



eusse 

eusses 

etit 

eussious 

eussiez 

eussent 



Fini 





me 


§5 


thee 


s 


him 


e 


U8 


3 


you 




they g 



to have finished, or he 
would want me to 
have finished, etc. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



Past. 

Avoir fini, To have finished. 



Past. 
Fini-ie, Finished. 



Present. 
Fin-ir, To finish. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. 
Fin-issant, Finishing. 

Compound. 
Ay ant fini, having finished. 

See page 200 for the 12th exercise. 

RESUME OF THE TWELFTH EXEKCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. II veut que je finisse. 2. II voudra qu'ils finissent. 3. II 
voulait que je finisse. 4. II veut que j'aie fini. 5. II voudrait qu'ils 
eussent fini. 6. Ayant fini. 7. II veut que tu finisses. 8. II voudra 
que vous finissiez. 9. II voulait que tu finisses. 10. II veut que tu 



TJSRB. 53 

aies fini. 11. H voudrait que tu cusses fini. 12. Fini. 13. IJ veut 
qu'il finisse. 14. IJ voudra que nous fini- 15. II voulait qu'il 

finit 16. 17 veut qu'il ait finL 17. II toudrait que vou- dni. 

18. Finie. 19. JZ veut que nous fLnissions. 20. II voudra qu'il fin: 
21. It voulait que nous finissions. __ U veut que nous ajons fini. 
-It voudrait que nous eussions fini. i B>. IJ veut 

que vous finissiez. 26. U voudra que tu fini ? sea :_7. II voudrait 
que tous finissiez. 28. II veut que tous ayez fini. 29. II voudrait 
qu'il eut finL 30. Avoir finL 31. It veut qu'ils finissent. 32. II 
voudra que je finisse. 33. H voulait qu'ils finissent. 34. U veut qu'ils 
aient finL 35. It voudrait que j'ensse finL 36. Finir. 

Written Practice. — 1. He Ta::> dm bo dnish. 2. He will vrsn; 
them to finish. 3. He was wanting me to finish. 4. He wants thee 
to finish. 5. He will want you to finish. 6. He was wanting thee 
to finish. 7. He wants him to finish* 8. He will want us to finish. 
9. He was wanting him to finish. 10. He wants us to finish. 11. 
He will want him to finish. 1- He wants you to finish. 13. He 
wm wi-:i-j t;u :■: finish. 14. He will want thee fee dni^h. 15. He 
was wanting us to finish. 16. He wants them to finish. 17. He will 
want me to finish. 18. He was wanting them to finish. 19. He 
wants me to haTe finished. 20. Haying finished. 21. He would 
want them to have finished. --. Pinioned, M. 23. He wants thee to 
have finished. 24. He would want jou to have finished. - shed, 

F. 26. He wants him to have finished. 27. He would want i: 
have finished. 28. Finishing, 29. He wants us to have finished. 30. 
He would want him to have finished. 31. To have finished. 32. He 
wants you to have finished. 33. He would want you to have finished. 
34. To finish. 35. He wants them to have finished. 36. He would 
want me to have finished. 

Rivals. — T: exrres? :.;:'; : :. replace (be f^wexning verb v-:- •»..'■;;> 
by aimer , or desirer (1065 his). 

Ex.: 

Jaime qnll finisse, J*s£merais qu'il nnit, etc. 

Qr 

Quelle est la lettre finale de la seconde personne du singulier 
du wesent de Findieatif, quand la premiere personne de ce temps 



54 



GRAMMAR. 



se termine par un e muet ? 122. Dans le cas ou cette premiere per- 
sonne commence par s ou par x, quelle est la finale de la troisieme 
per sonne de ce temps ? 123. Quelle est la lettre finale de cette troisieme 
personne du singulier, dans certains verbes de la quatrieme conju- 
gaison? 124. Comment se terminent les trois personnes du pluriel 
du present de Tindicatif dans les quatre conjugaisons ? 125. Quelles 
sont aussi dans les quatre conjugaisons les terminaisons de l'im- 
parfait de ce mode ? 



FOURTEENTH LESSON. 

Spelling and Ending of Verbs, continued. 

Past Definite. 

126. There are four characteristic endings in past definites : ai, 
is. us, ins. 



127. First Class, in AI. 

Composed of verbs of the first 
conjugation : aimer, chanter, parler ; 
to love, to sing, to speak, etc. 
See page 209. 



128. Second Class, in IS. 

Composed of verbs of the second, 

third, and fourth conjugations : jouir, 

voir, prendre ; to enjoy, to see, to take. 

See page 209. 



129. Third Class, in US. 

Composed of verbs of the second, 
third, and fourth conjugations : courir, 
concevoir, moudre ; to run, to conceive, 
to grind, etc. 

See page 209. 



J ' ] 




r ai 


/ 


did 


Tu 




as 


Thou didst 


n 


B 


a 


He ' 




Nous 


* 2 " 


ames* 


We 


did 


Vous 




ates 


You 


Us 




erent 


They j 




Je ] 




' is 


I did 


Tu 




is 


Thou didst 


11 


a 


it 


He I 


Nous 


S ' 


imes 


xr \ did 

You 


Vous 




ites 


Lis j 




irent 


They J 


Je 1 




' us 


/ did 


Tu 




us 


Thou didst 


11 


©. 

<D J 


ut 


He ) 


Nous 


'P5 ' 


umes 


You \ dld 


Vous 




utes 


lis t 




[ urent 


They J 





* Vowels take a circumflex accent in the penultimate syllable of the first and 
eecond persons plural of this tense. 



VERB. 



55 



130. Fourth Class, in INS. 

Composed of verbs of the second 
conjugation, ending in enir ; such as 
devenir, contenir, provenir, etc. ; to 
become, to coyitain, to proceed, etc. 
See page 209. 



Je 1 




Tu 




11 

Nous 


> 

1 A 1 


Vous 




lis 





ins 

ins 

int 

imes 

intes 



/ 

Thou 

He 

We 
You 



inrent They 



did 
didst 

■did 



131. The future always ends in rai, ras, ra, rons, rez, roxt. 



J' 
Tu 

II 

Nous 

Vous 



erai 

eras 

era 

erons 

erez 



/ 

Thou 
He 
We 

You 



will or 

shah 

shall 

will 

shall 



<hall 



love. 



lis J [ cront They shall 

Remark. — The syllable ai, in this tense, sounds the same as ai 
in the past definite (127). 



Those endings must be used 


as standard sounds, for words having 


le same syllables. 




Je ) 




' rai* / 


shall or icill 




Tu 




ras Thou 


wilt 




11 

Nous 


■ Prend - 


ra He 

rons We 


will 
shall 


' take. 


Vous 




rez You 


will 




lis 




h ront They 


will 





love. 



132. The conditional always ends in rais, rais, rait, rions, riez, 

RAIEXT. 

should or would 

wouUht 

would 

should 

would 

would 

Remark. — The syllable ais of the conditional has the same sound 
as ais in the imperfect of the indicative. 

I would or should finish. 
I would or should receive, 
I would or should sell. 



J' 1 




f erais 


/ 


Tu 




erais 


Thou 


11 




erait 


He 


Nous 


f aim -j 


erions 


We 


Vous 




eriez 


You 


lis J 




eraient 


They 



2d 


Conjugation, 


Je 


fin 


irais 


3d 


Conjugation, 


Je 


rec 


evrais 


4th 


Conjugation, 


Je 


vend 


rais 



. [l25. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

133. By dropping the personal pronouns and final s in the 
second person singular of the present indicative in the first conjuga- 
tion, we have the three persons of this mode throughout the four 
conjugations. See pages 30, 48, etc. 



*Do not add c to the ending, as is done in verbs of the first conjugation. 



56 



GRAMMAR. 



Present f Tu marches. fMarche Walk (thou). 

t -J Nous marchons. Imperative < Marchons Let us walk. 

judicative ^ Voug marchez , (^ Marchez Walk (ye or you). 



134. 



Avoir 




have 


Etre 




be 


Aller 


to* 


9° 


Vouloir 




be willing 


S avoir 




hiiow 



are exceptions tc this general rule. 



135* Their forms in the imperative mode are : 
Aie have (thou) Ayons Let us have Ayez have 

Sois be (thou) Soyons Let us be Soyez be 

Va go ( thou) Allons Let us go Allez go \ ye or you. 

Veuille be willing Veuillons Let us be willing Veuillez be willing 
Sache know (thou) Sachons Let us know Sachez know 

136. In verbs whose second person singular ends with e mute, 
s euphonic is added whenever the pronouns y, en, or y adverb follow 
that vowel. 

Ex. : 



Apportes-en. 
Donnes-y des soins. 
Vas-y. 



C Apporte de cela Bring some. 

Standing for I Prend soin de cela Take care of it. 
(Va-la. Go there. 



137. The same rule applies to the verb aller, to go, having for 
indirect object en; of it, or for indirect object the adverb y; there, 
as shown in the preceding example. 

Ex. : 

Vas-en prendre; standing for Va prendre de cela; Go get some; of it 
understood. Vas-y, standing for va dans cet endroit ; Go there. 

138. In the reflective verb (93) s'en aller; to go away, a 
euphonic t replaces s. 

Ex.: 

Va-t-il? va-t'en. (445.) Does he go? Go (thou) away, or from there. 

Remark. — Combined with aller, to go, en is adverb, and not a 
pronoun, as shown in the foregoing example. See Fasquelle's 
Method, page 141-1, for erroneous teaching. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (117, 118). 
Present or Future. 
139. This tense ends invariably in e, es, e, ions, iez, ent. 
Ufaut ou ilfaudra: See Paradigms of verbs. 



Que 



J' 

Tu 

II 

Nous 
Vous 
[ lis 



e Je 

es Tu 

e I must love, II 

ions etc. Nous 

iez Vous 

ent lis 



fin -{ 



isse 

isses 

isse I must finish , 

tssions etc. 

issiez 

iesent 



VERB. 



57 



llfaut ou ilfaudra: 



Que 



Je 

Tu 

II 

Nous 

Vous 

lis 



rec - 



r oiyq Je 
oives Tu 
oive I must re- 11 
ei-ions ceive, etc. Nous 
eviez Vous 

k oivent(117). Us J 


- ren • 


'de 
des 

de I must render, 
dions etc. 
diez 
dent 


Imperfect. 







140. Derivative o^ 
characteristic endings 



the past definite; this tense has also four 

(126), ASSE, ISSE, USSE, INSSE. 



141. First Class, in ASSE. 



llfallait ou ilfaudrait 



Composed of verbs of the 




r J* 




asse 




f me 




first conjugation : chanter, 




Tu 




asses 


S 


thee 


. 


pleurer, crier ; to sing, to 
search, to cry, etc. 


Que > 


11 

Nous 


[ B . 
< 


at 

assions 




him 

118 




See page 209. 




Vous 




assiez 


- ^ 


you 


o 






t Ils 




assent 


° * 


them 




142. Second Class, in ISSE. 


Si 




Composed of verbs of the 




f Je 




' isse 




me 




second, third, and fourth 




Tu 




isses 




thee 




conjugations: perir, voir, 


Que- 


n 


*4 


it 




him 


H 


pretendre, to perish, to see, 


Nous 


P< 


issions 


S f« 


us 


* ^ 


to pretend, etc. 




Vous 




issiez 


^ 


you 


© 


See page 209. 




I Ils 




issent 




them 




143. Third Class, in USSE. 






Composed of verbs of the 




f Je ) 




' usse 




r me 




second, third, and fourth 




Tu 




usses 


S 


thee 




conjugations : courir, pou- 


Que- 


11 


- © 1 


ut 




him 


V 


voir, conclure j to run, to be 


Nous 


« 


ussions 


s^ ■ 


U8 


* 1 


able, to conclude, etc. 




Vous 




ussiez 




you 


© 


See page 209. 




[ns J 




ussent 




they 4 




144. Fourth Class, in INSSE. 


eo ** 




Composed of verbs of the 




' Je 1 




' insse 


S ^ 
S » 


me 




second conjugation ending 




Tu 




insses 


09 V 


thee 


o 


in enir : venir, contenir ; to 
come, to contain, etc. 


Que- 


11 

Nous 


> 


int 
inssions 


« s 

g S 


him 
us 


See page 209. 




Vous 

> Us 




inssiez 
b inssent . 


^ 


you 

. thei J . 


© 


Kemark. — The third person singular of this tense, th 


rough the 


four conjugations, takes 


a cir 


cumflex 


ace 


3nt on the last vo 


wel (43 


4), 



which is always followed by t. 

QUESTIONS. 

126. Combien y a-t-il de terminaisons pour le pass6 d6fini des 
quatre conjugaisons? 127. De quelle conjugaison sont les verbes 



58 GRAMMAR. 

composant la premiere elasse? 12S. Quelles sout celles auxquelles 
appartienuent les verbes formaut la seconde elasse? 129. Quelles 
sent les eoujugaisons qui font partie de la troisienie elasse? 130. De 
quelle conjugaison sont les verbes qui eomposent la quatrieme elasse? 
131. Quelles sout les terniinaisous du futur dans les quatre conjugai- 
sons? 132. Quelles sont eelles du conditionnel? 133. Comment se 
forme le mode imperatif ? 134. Quelles sont les exeeptions a eette 
regie? 135. Comment font ees verbes dans ee mode? 136. Qu'ern- 
ploie-t-on quand la seconde personne de l'iniperatif terminee d'un e 
muet est suivie d'^ ou du pronom en? 137. Qu'ajoute-t-on au verbe 
aller quand il est eonjugue d'une maniere refleehie, et quand la se- 
conde personne de l'imperatif de ee verbe etant au singulier se 
trouve suivie d'i/ ou (Ten! 138. Quelle est la lettre euphonique qui 
remplace s, quand dans cette meme personne en precede le verbe 
alter eonjugue d'une maniere refleehie? 139. Quelles sont les ter- 
niinaisous du present du subjonctif dans les quatre eoujugaisons? 
1-40. Combien y a-t-il de terminaisons pour l'imparfait de ee mode? 
141. Quels sont les verbes qui eomposent la premiere elasse? 142. 
Quels sont ceux qui eomposent la deuxieme? 143. De quelles eouju- 
gaisons est conipos£e la troisienie? 144. De quelles eoujugaisons la 
quatrieme est-elle eomposee? 



FIFTEENTH LESSOX. 
Remarks ox Verbs of the Second Conjugation in IE (62). 

145. 1. Benir. to hless or consecrate, has two past participles. 

Ex.: 

Beni. benie. Blessed, said of persons or things. 

Benit, b£nite, Consecra: 

146. '2. Benit. benire. is said only of things (not of persons) 
consecrated by the church. 

Ex.: 

De l'eau-b£nite, Holy icater. 

Un c: A consecrated taper. 

Du pain-b£nit, HoUf bread. 

147. (3.) Combined with etre, to be, the participle b£ni, blessed, 
is used for persons or things. The blessing, in that case, proceeds 
from a higher source than the church. 



VERB. 



59 



Speaking of things, we say, 

Ex.: 

Nos armes ont 6te* benies de Dicu sur Our arms have been blessed on the field 
le champ de bataille, quoiqu'elles of battle, though not previously con- 
n'eussentpas ete benites parFSglise, secrated by the church. 

148* (4.) Conjugated with avoir, to have, the first participle b£ni, 
benie, blessed, is required. 

Ex.: 

Le ministre a b6ni Fassemblee, The minister blessed the congregation. 

L'assemblSe a 6te" benie par FeVeque, The congregation was blessed by the 

bishop. 

149. (5.) Hair, to hate, in the present indicative is irregular 
only in the singular, or in the second person singular of the im- 
perative mode. 



Ex.: 

Je nais, 
Tu hais, 
II hait. 



ds, } 
ais, > 
it, J 



Imperative, hais, 



/ hate, 
Thou hatesti 
Me hates. 



test, > 
> J 



Imperative, hate. 



It is regular throughout its other tenses, where i is surmounted 
with a diaeresis (440). 
Ex.: 



Nous ha'issons, 
Vous ha'issez, 
lis hais sent, 



answering : 



( We hate, 
< You hate, 
( They hate, 



i) 



{We are hating. 
You are hating. 
They are hating. 



150. (6.) Fleurir, to blossom — figuratively, to flourish — is spelled 
florissant, flourishing, in the present participle, or florissait in the 
imperfect of the indicative (116), that tense being derived from 
the other. 
Ex.: 

Cet 6tat est florissant, This is a flourishing state, 

La Greco florissait alors, Greece was then flourishing. 

It is regular in all the other tenses. 



Conjugation of the verb Eecevoir, to receive, third conjugation in oir, 

from the present indicative to the past anterior of that mode. 

Stem of that model verb Eec, or Reg, before o, u. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 







Present. 


] 


?AST. 


Je 1 




" ois / receive. 


J' ai 


/ have 


Tu 




ois Thou receivedst. 


Tu as 


Thou hast 


11 




oit He receives. 


11 a 


§, He has 


Nous ] 


evons We ~\ 


Nous avons 


' 2 We 1 „ 


Vous 




evez You > receive. 


Vous avez 


You [ § 


lis J 




oivent They J 


lis ont 


They J< 



6* 



GBAJUfAB 




Kkwabk. — Before the Towels o» r. the 
(175). 

See page 291 for exercise 13. 



consonant q takes a cedilla 



RESUME OF THE THIRTEEXTH EXERCISE. 

<:?.±z ??.a:i::z. 
L lis recQrrent. 2. Je reeerais. 3. Us reforest. 4. Xoos reeeroos. 
5. Hs earent reeo. 6. J'aTais reeo. 7- Yoos reeerex. 8. To rece- . 
vais. 9. Yoos ree, iites. 10. Us out reeo. LL Tu avals reeo. 12. 
Jeos reea- IS. Xoos resumes. 14. 11 leeerait. 15. To eos reeo. 
16. 11 await reeo. 17. 11 reeeit. 18. Xoos reeevioos. 19. Je reeos. 
20. Tons ares reeo. 21. To reeois. 22. Yoos reeeriex. 23. To as 
reeo. 24. Xoos aTons reeo. 25. H eat reeo. 26. Us araient recti. 
_ 1 Je leeois. 28. Us recevaient. 29. II reeoL 30. 11 a recti. 31. 
Xoos comes reeo. 32. Xoos atims reeo. 33. To reeos. 34. Yoos 
etites reeo. 35. J^ai reeo. 36. Yoos atiez reeo. 



Oar m 

TT -.; ■ ?':.;:•;■;.- 1. I"-:. i..i=- 
ing. 3 . They reeexved. 4. I hai 
had reeehred. 7. They had hem 
Tboo wast reeertmg. 10. Too rei 
12. Too had been recerring. 13. ' 



2. I was reeer*- 

Looreeeire. 6.1 

1.1.2 r---ri. r. 

. 14- We recerre. 



15. He was receiving. 16. We reeerfed. 17. He has received. 18. 
They were receiving. 19. We had been receiving. 20. He l ec eiies. 



VERB. 61 

27. You were receiving. 25. I received or did receive. 29. You have 
received. 30. He had been receiving. 31. I receive. 32. Thou hadst 
received. 33. They have received. 34. Thou receivedst or did receive. 
35. They receive. 36. They had received. 

QUESTIONS. 

145. Combien de participes a le verbe b&airf 146. Comment em- 
ploie-t-on le participe b€nit, benite? 147. Quand emploie-t-on b€ni, 
bonier 148. Avec quel participe de binir emploie-t-on l'auxiliaire 
avoir? 149. Comment fait hair dans ses trois personnes du singulier 
du present de rindicatif. et comment fait-il dans les trois personnes 
du pluriel de ce meme temps? 150. Quel est le participe present et 
Timparfait du verbe fleurir quand ce verbe est employe^ au figure 



SIXTEENTH LESSOX. 
Simple and Compound Tenses. 



151. Eight tenses, we have said (59 bis), express the three divi- 
sions of time. Each mode has several of those tenses, except the 
indicative mode, which possesses them all. Yet, it will be remarked 
in the paradigms of the four conjugations, tenses have peculiar forma 
in each mode. 

152. To express the different tenses, simple forms (51) are some- 
times used. 

Ex.: 

Je marche, Je lisais, Je Ins, I tcalk, I read, I did read. 

Sometimes compound forms are required. 

Ex.: 

J'ai marchg, J'avais lu, I had walked, Iliad read. 

153. There are two kinds of tenses, Simple and Compound. 

154. Simple tenses are those that make no use of the auxiliaries 
avoir or etre, to have, to be. 

Ex.: 

Je chante, Je finissais, / ting, I finished '. 



62 GRAMMAR. 

155. Compound tenses are those in which is used one of the 
tenses of amir or etre, joined to a past participle (160). 

Ex.: 

J'ai chants, J'arais fini, I have sung, I had finished. 

Tu seras reju, il 6tait parti. You trill be received, he, teas gone, 

156. Remark. — Compound tenses use the auxiliary avoir, to 
have — 

(1.) With active or transitive verbs (77). 
Ex.: 

J'ai Scrit, nous avions hi, I have written, ice had read. 

(2.) With many neuter verbs (87). 

Ex.: 

J'ai dormi, il a nui, I have slept, he has done tcrong. 

(3.) With some unipersonal verbs (103), that is, those essentially 
unipersonal. 

Ex.: 

II a fallu, il a imports, It has been necessary, it has been im- 

portant. 
H a plu, il a neigS, It has rained, it has snowed, 

157. Compound tenses take etre. to be — 

(1.) With passive verbs (79), combined vrith to have (251); to be, 
etre, being used in simple tenses. 

Ex.: 

Je suis estimS, ils Itaient aim£s. I am esteemed, they were loved. 

(2.) With the majority of unipersonal verbs (264 bis). 

Ex.: 

H est result^ il est arrivS. It has resulted, it has happened. 

(3.) With some neuter verbs (716, 717). 
Ex!: 

Je suis tombe, tu es alle*, I am fallen, thou art gone. 

(4.) With reflective verbs, having the meaning of avoir, to have, 
used in English (93). 

Ex.: 

Je me suis flattS, nous nous sommes I hare flattered myself, tee have pre- 

pr£sent£s. sented ours 

158. Remark. — Etre, to be, is often represented in English by 
avoir, to have, as in the preceding example (988, 1008 idioms). 



VERB. 



63 



159. With pronominal verbs, etre, to be, is used with the meaning 
of avoir, as shown in these direct constructions (95). 
Ex.: 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 

Je me a wis tromp6, on tromp£e, 
Nous nous sommes pr6sent6s, 
Tu t'es fatigue, ou fatiguSe, 



DIRECT CONSTRUCTION, 

Answering to the English. 
J'ai tromp6-moi, I have deceived my- 
self. 
Nous avoi\8 pre- We have presented 

sent6-nous, ourselves. 

Tu as fatigue-toi, Thoto hast fatigued 
thyself 



160. When used with past participles of other verbs, avoir and 

itre are called auxiliaries (66). 

Ex.: 

I have read, I had studied. 

I am esteemed, thou wilt be blamed. 



J'ai lu, j'avais etudi6, 

Je suis estime, tu seras blamS, 



161. Used alone, avoir, to have, is active or transitive (77), when 
direct objects (69) are connected with it. 

Ex.: 

J'ai un ami, j'avais une maison, I have a friend, I had a house. 

162. Without combination with past participles, etre, to be, is a 
substantive verb (27, 466). 

Ex.: 

Je suis heureux, je serai en Italie, I am happy, I will be in Italy. 

In such cases, it marks state or situation (715) in the subject 
whose existence is affirmed. 

Ex.: 

Dieu est, God is. 



Continuation of Becevoir, to receive, from the future indicative to the 
subjunctive mode. 



Future. 



Future Anterior. 



Je ] 




'evrai 


/ will 




J' aurai 


/ shall 


Tu 




evras 


Thou shalt 




Tu auras 


Thou wilt 


n 


c> 


evra 


He shall 




11 aura 


^ He will 


Nous 


& ' 


evrons 


We icill 


C 


Xous aurons 


' ® We shall 


Vous 




evrez 


You shall 


£ 


Yous aurez 


You will 


lis J 




. erront 


They shall t 




Us auront 


They will 



64 




GRAMMAR. 




CONDITIONAL MODE. 




PRESENT. 


PAST. 


Je ) 




'evrais / would 




J* aurais 


/ would 


Tu 




evrais Thoushouldat 




Tu aurais 


Thou shouldst 


11 


o 

O J 


evrait Z7e should 


j 


11 aurait 


3 He should 


Nous 


r* " 


evrions We would 


■ C 


Xous aurions 


c We would 


Vous 




evriez You should 


* 


Vous auriez 


You should 


lis J 




v evraient They should 




lis auraient t 


They should 



IMPERATIVE MODE, 
fois Receive (thou). 

Key < evons Let us receive. 

(evez Receive (ye or you). 

See page 202 for the 14th exercise. 

162 bis. In those exercises, students should always remember 
to express with inflexions French futures or conditionals. They 
should not use auxiliaries as in English, unless will or duty is to 
be strongly expressed. Therefore, we must say : 

Ex.: 
J'irai, "j f Je Toudrai aller, I will go, "J expressing sim- 

J'irais, > instead of : -j Je voudrais aller, I would go, j-ply a future ac- 

Je ferai (178), J ( Je voudrai faire, I will do, J tion. 



Xous voulons aller, 
Xous devons faire, 
II veut parler, 



We want to go, 

We must do, 

He wants to speak, 



expressing will or duty. 



This important distinction must not be overlooked by learners 
(131, 132, 1227). 

RESUME OF THE FOURTEENTH EXERCISE. 
ORAL PRACTICE. 
1. Hs recevront. 2. J'aurai rec,u. 3. Je recevrai. 4. lis auraient 
requ. 5. Recevez. 6. Vous auriez requ. 7. Tu recevrais. 8. Tu 
auras recu. 9. Vous recevrez. 10. II aura requ. 11. II recevrait. 
12. Xous aurions requ. 13. Recevons. 14. II aurait recu. 15. Xous 
recevrions. 16. Xous aurons requ. 17. Xous recevrons. 18. Vous 
aurez requ. 19. Vous recevriez. 20. Tu aurais requ. 21. Reqois. 
22. J' aurais requ. 23. lis recevraient. 24. lis auront requ. 25. II 
recevra. 26. Je recevrais. 27. Tu recevras. 

Ox the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. Receive (you). 2. They would have received. 

3. I should have received. 4. They will have received. 5. They 

will receive. 6. Thou wouldst receive. 7. You would have received. 

8. Let us receive. 9. YouwiH receive. 10. I shall receive. 11. Thou 



VERB. 65 

wilt receive. 12. He would receive. 13. We should have received. 
14. Receive (thou). 15. We shall have received. 16. He will have 
received. 17. We should receive. IS. He would have received. 
19. He will receive. 20. You will have received. 21. Thou wouldst 
have received. 22. You would receive. 23. I shall receive. 24. We 
shall have received. 25. They would receive. 26. I should have 
received. 27. You will receive. 

QUESTIONS. 

151. Par combien de temps les trois divisions de la durSe se 
trouvent-elles exprimSes? 152. Emploie-t-on toujours les memes 
formes pour exprimer ces temps? 153. Combien y a-t-il d'esp&ces 
de temps? 154. Qu'appelle-t-on temps simples? 155. Qu'est-ee 
qu'un temps compose ? 156. Dans quels cas emploie-t-on avoir dans 
les temps composes? 157. Dans quels autres emploie-t-on Href 
158. Quelle est la reniarque a faire sur Feniploi de ces deux verbes, 
tant en francais qu'en anglais ? 159. Dans quel sens emploie-t-on 
etre avec les verbes pronominaux ou reneehis ? 160. Dans quel 
cas les verbes avoir et etre sont-ils auxiliaires ? 161. A quelle es- 
p&ce de verbes appartient avoir quand il est employe seul? 
162. Comment appelle-t-on le verbe ttre quand il n'est pas combine 
avec le partieipe d'autres verbes? 162 bis. Quelle est la remarque 
k faire sur l'emploides futurs et conditionnels en franqais? 



SEYEXTEEXTH LESSOX. 

163. Xe, pas, not, we have seen (31), when placed before verbs 
in the present of the infinitive, render their action negative. Ne is 
subject to elision (438 ) when placed before a vowel or h mute. 

Ex.: 

N"e pas aimer, ne pas dormir, - to love, not to sleep. 

X'honorez pas. n'aimez pas, Do not honor, do not love. 

164. In other modes, to render a sentence negatively, ne, not, 
is placed before the verb; pas, not, after it in simple tenses (154). 
In those cases, verbs affirm that something does not exist in the 
subject (31), or express absence of possession in the same. 

Ex.: ' 

Je n'ai pas d'argent, / have no money. 

Je n'ai pas le temps de m'amuser. I have no time to play. 



66 



GRAMMAR. 



165. In compound tenses (155), ne, not, is placed before the 
auxiliary ; pas, not, after it. 

Ex.: 

Yous n'avez pas recu de pain, You have not received bread. 

Us n'ont pas recu d' argent, They have not received money. 

166. Remark. The second negative pas is dropped when ne is 
followed by one of the subjoined adverbial negatives. 

Not much. 



Ri 521 bis), 
Rien, plus que, 
Personne, 
Aucun, 
Jamais (403), 



Neither, 

Nothing, only, but. 

dy. 
None. 
Never. 



Guere, 

Nullement, 

Aucunement, 

Pas-du-tout, 

En aucune maniere, J 



Not at all (821 
bis). 



Ex.: 
Je n'ai ni Fargent ni la viande, 

I n'avons rien. Yous n'avez jamais 
rien, 
Aucun, personne ne viendra, 



/ have neither the money nor the meat. 
We have nothing. You never have any 

th ing. 
None, nobody will come. 



Remark. — As a negative, rien always excludes the use of the 
second negation pas (401, 925). 

Conclusion of the verb Recevoir, to receive. 

To express wish or desire. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Que 



Remark. — It might be said in the first person, Je desire qu'U 
recvive, je desirais qu y il regut, etc. (43). 







Present. 






II disire 






f Je ] 




oive 


me 




Tu 




oives 


thee 




11 
Xoua 


-Rec - 


oive tt • t 

He wishes • 
evions 


h im 

U8 


- to receive. 


Yous 




eviez 


you 




. Es 




oivent 


them 





Que 



Future. 



II desirera 



f Je ] 




oive 




me 




Tu 




oives 




thee 




n 

Xous 


■ Rec, 


oive 
evions 


He will wish - 


him 
us 


■ to receive* 


Yous 




eviez 




you 




Ills J 




oivent 




them 





VERB. 



67 



Que 



II desirait ou il diairerait 


r Je 1 


' usse 


Tu 


usses 


Nous j- Ee ?- 


tit 
ussions 


Vous 


ussiez 


. Us J 


k ussent 



§8 



me 

thee 

him 



you 
them 



to receive. 



Past. 



II desire ou il dfoirera 



Que - 



Que ■ 



r J' 


aie 


u 


'me 




Tu 


aies 


%^ 


thee 




n 

Nous 


ait 
ayons 


■ recu ^| 8 - 

S3 


him 

U8 


' to receive. 


Vous 


ayez 


you 




. Us 


aient 


{35 


them 






Pluperfect. 






II desirait ou il dSsirerait 






r 


eusse 


U r*Z. 


me 




Tu 


eusses 


co 0.5 


thee 




11 


etit 


§ s>s 


him 


to have re 


Nous 


eussions 


■ recu ^ -s -g j 
|SS"3 

is 


U8 


ceived. 


Vous 


eussiez 


you 




lis 


eussent 


them 





INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. Past. 

Rec evoir, To receive. Avoir recu, To have received, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Past. 

Rec evant., Receiving. Recu e, Received. 

Compound. 

Ay ant recu, Having received. 

See page 203 for the 15th Exercise. 

RESUME OF THE SIXTH EXERCISE. 
ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. II desire que je receive. 2. II dtsirera que je recoive. 3. II 
distrait qu'ils recjussent. 4. II disireqne j'aie re$u. 5. II disirerait 
qu'ils aient reQu. 6. Recevoir. 7. II desire que tu receives. 8. II 
desirera qu'il recoive. 9. II distrait que vous recjussiez. 10. II desire 
que tu aies recu. 11. II de'sirerait que vous eussiez recu. 12. Avoir 



63 GRAMMAR. 

recju. 13. II desire qu'il receive. 14. II d4sirera que tu receives. 

15. II d&irerait que nous recessions. 16. II disire qu'il ait rec,u. 
17. II dtsirerait que nous eussions rec,u. 18. Eecevant. 19. II de- 
sire que nous recevions. 20. II dgsirera que vous receviez. 21. II 
desirait qu'il regut. 22. II desire que nous ayons requ. 23. II d€si- 
rerait qu'il aitr requ. 24. Requ.* 25. II desire que vous receviez. 
26. II dtsirera que nous recevions. 27. 27 disirait que tu recesses. 
28. 2Z disire que vous ayez regu. 29. II desirerait que tu eusses 
requ. 30. Ayant requ. 31. II disire qu'ils reqoivent. 32. II d6- 
sirera quails reqoivent. 33. II desirait que je requsse. 34. II de- 
sire qu'ils aient requ. 35. Reque. 36. II desirerait que j'eusserequ. 

On the Same. 
Written Practice. — 1. He wishes me to receive. 2. He will wish 
them to receive. 3. He wishes me to have received. 4. He would 
wish them to have received. 5. He wishes thee to receive. 6. He 
will wish you to receive. 7. He wishes thee to have received. 8. He 
would wish you to have received. 9. He was wishing me to have 
received. 10. To receive. 11. He wishes him to receive. 12. He 
will wish us to receive. 13. He wishes him to have received. 14. He 
would wish us to have received. 15. He was wishing thee to receive. 

16. To have received. 17. He wishes us to receive. 18. He will 
wish him to receive. 19. He wishes us to have received. 20. He 
would wish him to have received. 21. He was wishing him to 
receive. 22. Receiving. 23. He wishes you to receive. 24. He 
will wish thee to receive. 25. He wishes you to have received. 
26. He would wish thee to have received. 27. He was wishing us 
to receive. 28. Received, M. 29. He wishes them to receive. 
30. He was wishing me to receive. 31. He wishes -them to have 
received. 32. He would wish me to have received. 33. Received, F. 
34. He was wishing you to receive. 35. Having received. 36. He 
was wishing them to receive. 

QUESTIONS. 
163. Quels sont les mots qui rendent Taction du verbe negative? 
164. Ou se placent les negations dans les modes personnels ? 165. Ou 
est leur place dans les temps composes ? 166. Quels sont les mots 
qui remplacent la negation pas t 

* Participles are sometimes used with one negation. Ex. : Une lettre non 
reque, des lerjom non sues. 



VERB. 69 



EIGHTEENTH LESSON. 

Verbs, Continued. 

167. To render verbs interrogatively (179 ter), Est-ce que? 
literally, Is it that t do If may be placed before each person of the 
tenses. The imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive modes are to 
be excepted ; yet when in the shape of incidental propositions (477), 
these two last modes are frequently used in the formation of inter- 
rogative sentences, phrases in French (454). 

Ex.: 

Est-ce que j'aime ? Do I love ? 

Est-ce que vous aimez ? Do you love t 

Est-ce qu'ils aimeront ? Will they love ? 

168. Having no determinate meaning in itself, when preceded 
by governing verbs, the subjunctive mode is also susceptible of 
becoming interrogative (45, 952). 

Ex.: 

II faut que je pafle. Est-ce qu'il I must speak. Will it he necessary 

faudra que je parle ? for me to speak ? 

Desirc-t-il que j'entre ? Does he wish me to come in ? 

Faudra-t-il entrer ou sortir? Shall we go in or out ? 

169. Est-ce que ? is generally used before verbs, adverbs, adjec- 
tives, pronouns, etc. 

Ex.: 

Est-ce que j'aime ? Do I love ? 

Est-ce que Louis s'en va ? Does Lewis go away ? 

Est-ce que le bon pain est fini? la the good bread finished ? 

Est-ce que vous et lui allez partir ? You and he are going away ? 

Est-ce qu'ordinairement vous tous- Do you generally cough ? 
sez? 

lTO. Unless in the present of the infinitive mode, or with 
infinitives used substantively, est-ce? cannot be employed before 
verbs. 

Ex.: 

Est-ce vivre que de tant souffrir ? To suffer so much, is it to live ? 

Parler ainsi, est-ce parler en sa To speak so, is it to sj>eak favorably 

faveur ? of him f 

Est-ce le boirc ou le manger qui lui Is it drinking or eating which hurt 

a fait mal ? him ? 



70 



GRAMMAR. 



171« This interrogative form, much used in French, will meet 

any interrogative cases where pronouns cannot be placed after 
verbs used interrogatively. 

Ex.: 

Est-ce que je cours ? Do I run ? 

Est-ce que je parts ? Do I depart t 

Est-ce que je mange ? Do I eat ? 

For we could not say, against practice or grammar : 

Cours-je? Prends-je? Peux-je? Meurs-je? Dors-je? 

Qui or que interrogative, we have seen (69), answer to: who for 
persons, ivhat for things. The interrogative form, n' est-ce past 
coming after sentences, calls for the assent to the question ; answer- 
ing to : have I not? does he not? etc., in English. 
Ex.: 

J'ai dit vrai, n'est-ce pas ? / have told the truth, have I not f 

H ment, n'est-ce pas ? He lies, does he not f 

Us sont partis, n'est-ce pas ? They are gone, are they not t 

Coming immediately after a question, the words je vous le demande 
form a pleonasm (856), giving much strength to the sentence: 
Ex.: 

Avez-vous fait cela,je vous le de- Have you done so, I ash you f 

mande ? 

Pois-je faire ainsi, nous vous le de- Must I do so, we ask of you t 

mandons ? 

Que devons-nous dire, je te le de- What must we say, I ash thee? 

mande? 

[Remark.— Application of the preceding rules must be made on 
our resumes of verbs. By the repetition of the same exercises 
under this new form, learners will become practically acquainted 
with verbs and their different uses. 

Conjugation of the verb Vendre, to sell, fourth conjugation in re, 
from the present indicative to the past anterior of the same mode. 

Stem of that model verb vend. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Je 
Tu 

II* 
Nous 
Vous 
lis 



Vend \ rtTiQ 
ons 

I ez 

1^ ent 



Present. 




/ 


sell. 


Thou 


sellest. 


He 


sells. 


We 


) 


You 


> sell. 


They 


J 



*With verbs ending in dre, such as vendre, prendre, etc. t there is no 
inflexion in this person. Coudre, moudre take d (178). 



VERB. 



71 









Imperfect. 






Je ] 




ais 


/ 


Wa8 




Tu 




ais 


Thou 


wast 




11 


- Vend ■ 


ait 


He 


was 


selling y or used 


Nous 


ions 


We 


) 


to sell. 


Vous 




iez 


You 


> were 




lis 




aient 


They 


J J 






Past Definite. 






Je 




r is 


I 


did 




Tu 




is 


Thou 


didst 




n 

Nous 


■ Vend - 


it 
imes 


He 
We 


I did 


' sell. 


Vous 




ites 


You 




lis 




_ irent 


They 


J 






Past. 






J' 


ai 




I 


have 




Tu 


as 




Thou 


hast 




11 

Nous 


a 

avons 


■ vendu 


He 
We 


has 

1 


■ sold. 


Vous 


avez 




You 


> have 




lis 


ont 




They 


J J 






Pluperfect. 






J' 


avais 




I 


had ' 




Tu 


avais 




Thou 


hadst 




n 

Nous 


avait 
avion s 


- vendu 


He 

We 


[ had 

J . 


■ been selling. 


Vous 


aviez 




You 




Us 


avaient 




They 






Past Anterior. 






J' 


eus 




I 


had 




Tu 


eus 




Thou 


hadst 




11 

Nous 


eut 
eumes 


- vendu 


He 
We 


>■ had 


■ sold. 


Vous 


eutes 




You 




lis 


eurent 


, 




They 


J 





See page 204 for Exercise 16. 



KESUME OF THE SIXTEENTH EXERCISE. 
ORAL PRACTICE. 
1. Je vends. 2. lis vendaient. 3. lis vendirent. 4. J'ai vendu. 
5. J' eus vendu. 6. lis avaient vendu. 7. Tu vends. 8. Tu vendais. 
9. Vous vftndites. 10. Tu as vendu. 11. Tu eus vendu. 12. Vous 
avez vendu. 13. 11 vend. 14. 11 vendait. 15. Nous vendimes. 16. 
II a vendu. 17. II eut vendu. 18. Nous avions vendu. 19. Nous 
vendons. 20. 11 vendit. 21. Nous avons vendu. 22. Nous eumes* 
vendu. 23. J'avais vendu. 24. Nous vendions. 25. Vous vendiez. 

7* 



72 GRAMMAR. 

26. Tu vendis. 27. Vous aviez vendu. 28. Tu avais vendu. 29. 
Yous vendez. 30. lis vendent. 31. Je vendis. 32. lis ont vendu. 
33. lis eurent vendu. 34. II avait vendu. 35. lis vendirent. 36. 
Je vendais.* 

On the Same. 

Written Practice. — 1. I sell. 2. Thou wast selling. 3. I did sell. 
4. They have sold. 5. I had sold. 6. Th£y had been selling. 7. 
Thou sellest. 8. Thou didst sell. 9. You had sold. 10. Thou had>t 
sold. 11. You had been selling. 12. You were selling. 13. He sells. 
14. We were selling. 15. He did sell. 16. "We have sold. 17. He 
had sold. 18. They were selling. 19. We sell. 20. He was selling. • 
21. We did sell. 22. He has sold. 23. We had sold. 24. He had 
been selling. 25. You sell. 26. Thou wast selling. 27. You did sell. 
28. Thou hast sold. 29. You had sold. 30. Thou hadst been selling. 
31. They sell. 32. I was selling. 33. They did sell. 34. He has 
sold. 35. They had sold. 36. I had been selling. 

QUESTIONS. 
167. Quelle est 1' expression franchise employee pour rendre un 
verbe interrogatif ? 168. Dans quel cas le mode subjonctif exprime-t-il 
une interrogation? 169. Dans quelles occasions emploie-t-on est-ce- 
que? 170. Quand emploie-t-on est-cef 171. Peut-on toujours se 
servir de V expression interrogative est-ce-que? devant toutes les per- 
gonnes des verbes? 



NINETEENTH LESSON. 

Remarks on Verbs of the Third Conjugation, in OIR. 

1*72. (1.) Devoir, to owe, redevoir, to oive again, take the circum- 
flex accent on their past participles masculine, dH, redd, (435). 



173. (2.) 




Pouvoir, 


To be able y 


Valoir, 


To be icorth, 


Vouloir, 


To be icilling, 



* These exercises under the affirmative form are intended to be made 
interrogative by the practical application of rules given in this lesson. This 
may be done with all our preceding resumes, should it be deemed necessary. 



VERB. 



73 



take x instead of s, in- the first and second persons of the pre- 
sent indicative (122). 
Ex.: 

Je peux, je vaux, je veux,* / can, I am worth, lam willing. 

Til peux, tu vaux, tu veux, Thou canst, thou art worth, thou art 

willing. 

174. Pouvoir has two first persons singular in the present in- 
dicative (212). 

Ex.: 

Je peux ou je puis, / can or am able. 

The first rejects the common form of interrogation (179 ter); the 
last adopts it. 

Ex.: 

Puis-je parler? May I speak? 

Remark. — The English verb may, expressing the faculty of doing 
a thing, or can, the power to execute the same thing, answers, in 
French, to the verb pouvoir. 

Ex.: 
Puis-je faire cela? Vous le pouvez May I do that? You may if you can. 
si vous pouvez le faire. 

May expressing the faculty of doing a thing, corresponds with the 
French expression avoir la faculty de. 
Ex.: 
Vous avez la faculte de le faire. You may do it if you please. 

Can expressing the power to do a thing, answers to the words: 
Ure ci meme. 
Ex.: 
Vous etes a meme de faire cela, You can do that. 

175. (3.) Whenever the letter c comes before the vowels o, u, 
(106) in the verb recevoir, to receive, or any of its compounds, a 
cedilla (3) must be placed under it to soften its sound (439). 

Ex.: 

Recus, recois, Received, receive (thou). 



* Though Noel and Chapsal's Grammar does not give any imperative to 
this verb, yet good practice admits such expressions : Veuille te taire, for 
tais-toi; answering to: hold thy tongue. Veuillez-en finir, for finissez-en; stop 
that; veuille, veuillez, being the second persons of that mode; veuillons, the 
first (135). 



74 



GRAMMAR. 



176. (4.) Among verbs of the fourth conjugation it is only those 
ending in evoir which are conjugated like recevoir. Such verbs as 
voir, mouvoir, savoir, etc., are conjugated irregularly, as will be 
shown when treating of irregular verbs. 



177. 



Apercevoir, 
Concevoir, 
Percevoir, 
Devoir, 
Redevoir, etc. 



To perceive. 

To conceive. 

To collect or get knowledge of things. 

To owe. 

To owe again, etc. 



may be conjugated like the model verb of the third conjugation. 

Continuation of the verb Vendre, to sell, from the past anterior of the 
indicative to the subjunctive mode. 



Future. 



Je 
Tu 
II 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 



> 



rai 

ras 

ra 

rons 

rez 

ront 



/ will 
Thou shalt 
He shall 
We will 
You shall 
They shall 



Future Anterior. 



J* aurai 
Tu auras 
II aura 

Nous aurons 
Vous auuez 
lis auront 





I 


will 


pj 


Thou shalt 


H3 


He 


shall 


We 


will 


> 


You 


shall 



They shall 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Present. 



Je 1 




Tu 




11 


. 3 . 


Nous 


> 


Vous 


lis j 





rais 

rais 

rait 

rions 

riez 

raient 



I would 
Thou shouldst 
He should 
We would 
You should 
They should 



Past. 



J' aurai s 
Tu aurais 
II aurait 
Nous aurions 
Vous auriez 
Us auraient 



i" would 
Thoushouldst 

should 
We would 
You should 
They should 



5 He 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



{S Sell (thou). 

ons Let us sell. 

ez Sell (ye or you). 

See page 205 for Exercise 17, or Nos. 1026, 1041, 1046 Ibis and following for 
idioms. 



RESUME OF THE SEVENTEENTH EXERCISE. 
ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Je vendrai. 2. lis vendraient. 3. Tu vendras. 4. Vous vendrez. 
5. II vendra. 6. Nous vendrions. 7. Nous vendrons. 8. II vendrait. 
9. Vous vendrez. 10. Tu vendrais. 11. lis vendront. 12. Je 
vendrais. 13. J' aurai vendu. 14. lis auraient vendu. 15. Tu auras 
vendu. 16. Vends. 17. Vous auriez vendu. 18. II aura vendu. 
19. Nous aurions vendu. 20. Vendons. 21. Nous aurons vendu. 



VERB. 75 

22. II aurait vendu. 23. Vous aurez vendu. 24. Vendez. 25. Tu 
aurais vendu. 26. lis auront vendu. 27. J'aurais vendu. 

On the Same. 

- Written Practice. — 1. Sell (ye or you). 2. You would have sold. 
3. Thou wilt have sold.. 4. He will have sold. 5. They would have 
sold. 6. We should have sold. 7. I will have sold. 8. Let us sell. 
9. I would have sold. 10. We will have sold. 11. They will sell. 
12. He would have sold. 13. Thou wouldst sell. 14. You shall have 
sold. 15. You will sell. 16. Sell (thou). 17. He would sell. 18. 
Thou shouldst have sold. 19. We will sell. 20. They will have sold. 
21. We would sell. 22. I would sell. 23. He will sell. 24. I will 
sell. 25. You would sell. 26. They would sell. 27. Thou shalt sell. 

QUESTIONS. 

172. Quelle est la premiere remarque sur les verbes de la troisieme 
conjugaison en oirf 173. Quels sont les verbes de cette conjugaison 
qui prennent x, au lieu d'un s, dans la premiere et dans la seconde 
personne du singulier du present de Pindicatif ? 174. Qu'avez-vous 
a faire remarquer sur le verbe pouvoir? 175. Quelle est la troisieme 
remarque sur les verbes de cette conjugaison? 176. Quels sont les 
verbes terminant en oir qui se conjuguent irr^gulierement? 177. 
Quels sont ceux d'entre ces verbes qui ne peuvent se conjuguer sur 
le verbe modele ? 



TWENTIETH LESSON. 



Remarks on some Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation ending 
in RE (62). 

l^S. Among verbs of this class ending in dre,. in the three per- 
sons singular of the indicative, some replace ds, ds, d, by s, s, t. 
Such are the verbs ending in indre or soudre, peindre, craindre, 
joindre, absoudre. (See note P. 70). 

Ex.: 

Je peins, tu peins, il peint, I paint, thou faintest, he paints. 

Je rSsous, tu rSsous, il rlsout, / resolve, thou resolvest, he resolves. 






ORAMMAR. 



1T9. 

Attendre, 

Bm| win* 

re, 

DeYendie, 



To ftait, 
To hear, 

Tt weftmd) 



Rlpandre, 

:.v;.:::l:e. 

Tondie, 

I:rire. 



I: cy./. '-•..■:. 

ft BMMTj 

TV h - -< . :. 
ft Bmatj e:_\ 



are conjugated like the model Terb. 
exercises on nasal sour 



They are proper subjects for 



Remark. — The future of the indicative mode and present con- 
ditional (231) of the irregular verb fair*, in these tenses, change ai 
m into e mute (954). 
Ex.: 

J :. ; ; :\:7 ;; :'■:;.■. 5. 7; :.';._"'_•.'." '-\- . J" ■._■;■. 7" 7. 

179 :::»s ending in ai/re retain the circumflex accent on i, 

when thai ia placed before t. 

Ex.: 

7; : :~;::. 7: ':.::;. 

1 is haying the same inflection are pronounced alike. 
jlairre. :r:7:re. | iriitre. Master, traitor, to 4 



Omekumm of the r-::7 c: -.::-:. :■: s-fll. 
sub j ; : : : e mode. 



U era 


■1 si: 

Tu 




Dm - 


n 

HflMi 

. at 


• ■»* B ** 



■ll 



I . TTT..Z. 



7 «&. 
Tlov mBmL 
Hi 



We 1 



7; 



Que 



Je 

Tu 

n 

HflMi 

V : m 

m 



zz TizL 



e 


b 


' : >■". 


Bl 


B 

S 


_ -:o iiVaU 


e 


He tells. 


MM 


• r *! ' 


We 1 


ica 




Ymm etSL 


ti: 


m 


They J 



Ki Yi5.x. — The M«— tirt ne is placed after the personal pronoun 
abject of the verb. 



VERB. 



77 



Past. 



II craint ou craindra 



Que 



Je ) 




aie 




■- O 


Tu 




aies 




Q -^ 


11 

Nous 


■ n' - 


ait 
avons 


3 

" a 


^ I! 

B (9 


To us 




arez 


> 


<^ 


lis J 




aient 




^"1 



Imperfect. 



II craignait ou craindrait 



Que 



f Je 1 




Tu 

n 


p 

■ 


Nous 
Vous 


■ > - 

O 


[lis J 





isse 

isscs 

it 

issions 

issiez 

issent 






3 ° "8 



«T* 



Pluperfect. 



II craignait ou craindrait 



Que 



fJe ] 




Tu 




H 




Nous 


- n - 


Vous 




. ns 





eusse 

eusses 

eut 

eussions 

eussiez 

eusseut 






= - ? 



/ have 

Thou hast 
He has 
We "J 
You > have 
.They j 



(I had 

Thou hadst 
He had 



We ) 

You V 
Jhey J 



had 



(I had 
Thou hadst 
He had 

We 



You 
They 



had 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



Present. 
Vendre, To sell. 



Past. 

Avoir rendu, To have sold. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 
Vendant, Selling. 

Compound. 
Ayant rendu, Having sold. 

See page 205 for 18th Exercise. 



Past. 

Vendu-ue, Sold. 



RESUME OF THE EIGHTEENTH EXERCISE. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 
1. II craint que je ne rende. 2. II craindra qu'ils ne vendent. 
3. II craint que je n'aie rendu. 4. II craindrait que je n' eusse rendu. 
5. II craint que tu ne rendes. 6. II crainclra que rous ne rendiez. 
7. II craint que tu n'aies rendu. 8. II craindrait que rous n'eussiez 
vendu. 9. II craignait que je ne rendisse. 10. Tendre. 11. II 
craignait qu'ils ne rendissent. 12. Aroir rendu. 13. II craint qu'il 



78 GRAMMAR. 

ne vende. 14. II craindra que nous nevendions. 15. II craint qu'il 
n'ait vendu. 16. II craindrait que nous n'eussions vendu. 17. II 
craignait que tu ne vendisses. 18. Vendant. 19. II craignait que 
vous ne vendissiez. 20. Vendu. 21. II craint que nous nevendions. 
22. II craindra qu'il ne vende. 23. II craint que nous n'ayons 
vendu. 24. II craindrait qu'il n'eut vendu. 25. II craint que vous 
ne vendiez. 26. II craindra que tu ne vendes. 27. II craint que 
vous n'ayez vendu. 28. II craindrait que tu n'eusses vendu. 29. II 
craignait que nous ne vendissions. 30. Vendue. 31. II craignait 
qu'il ne vendit. 32. II craint qu'ils ne vendent. 33. II craindra 
que je ne vende. 34. II craint qu'ils n'aient vendu. 35. II crain- 
drait que je n'eusse vendu. 36. Ayant vendu. 

On the Same. 
Written Practice. — 1. He fears that I sell. 2. He will fear that 
they sell. 3. He was fearing that I sell. 4. He fears that I have 
sold. 5. He would fear that they had sold. 6. To sell. 7. He fears 
that thou sellest. 8. He will fear that you sell. 9. He was fearing 
that you had sold. 10. He will fear that thou hadst sold. 11. He 
would fear that you had sold. 12. To have sold. 13. He fears that 
he will sell. 14. He fears that we will sell. 15. He was fearing 
that he had sold. 16. He fears that he has sold.. 17. He would fear 
that we had sold. 18. Selling. 19. He fears that we will sell. 
20. He fears that thou wilt sell. 21. He was fearing that we sell. 
22. He fears that we have sold. 23. He would fear that thou hadst 
sold. 24. Sold, M. 25. He fears that you sell. 26. He would fear 
that thou sellest. 27. He was fearing that you sell. 28. He fears 
that they have sold. 29. He would fear that I had sold. 30. Sold, F. 
31. He fears that they sell. 32. He will fear that I sell. 33. He 
was fearing that they sell. 34. He fears that I will sell. 35. He 
was fearing that he sells. 36. Having sold. 

QUESTIONS. 

178. Quelles sont les remarques sur quelques verbes de la qua- 
trieme conjugaison? 179. Quels sont les verbes que Ton peut eon- 
juguer sur le verbe modele de cette conjugaison? 179 bis. Quels 
sont les verbes qui prennent un accent circonflexe sur t, quand cette 
lettre est suivie de t ? 



VERB. 



79 



TWENTY-FIKST LESSON. 

Conjugation of Verbs Interrogatively . 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Aime-je? 
Aimes-tu ? 
Aime-t-il ? 
Ainions-nous ? 
Aimez-vous ? 
Aiment-ils ? 



Present (52). 



Finis-je? *». 

Finis-tu ? •§ 

Finit-il? *| , 

Finissons-nous ? *»1 

Finis sez-vous ? ^ 

Finissent-ils ? C; 



Re^ois-je? 
Recois-tu? 
Regoit-il ? 
Recevons-nous ? 
Recevez-vous ? 
Regoivent-ils ? 



^ lEst-ce que je ^ 
Rends-tu? [rends ?^ 
Rend-il? s « 

_ p Rendons-nous ? £ © 
*2 Rendez-vous? ^ 
q |Rendent-ils? q 



Imperfect (54). 



Airnais-je? 
Airnais-tu ? 
Aimait-il ? 
Aimions-nous ? 
Aimiez-vous ? 
Aimaient-ils ? 



If 



Finis sais-je? ,< 
Finissais-tu ? •«? £ 
Finissait-il ? 4 c 

Finissions-nous ? *"•'* 
Finissiez-vous ? J s 
Finissaient-ils ? £: 



Recevais-je? .g 
Recevais-tu ? § J 
Recevait-il ? £ ' 

Recevions-nous ? ►s "j 
Receviez-vous ? § j 
Recevaient-ils ? ^ 



Rendais-je? 
R'endais-tu ? 
Rendait-il ? 
Rendions-nous ? 
Rendiez-vous ? 
j Rendaient-ils ? 






Aimai-je? 
Aimas-tu ? 
Aima-t-il ? 
Aimanies-nous ? 
Aimates-vous ? 
Aimerent-ils ? 



Past Definite (55). 



*•. : Finis-je? 
g | Finis-tu? 
g 6 Finit-il? 
^ Id Finimes-nous ? 
§ I Finites-vous ? 
^ Finirent-ils ? 



J I Recus-je ? 
3 | Recus-tu ? 
^d Recut-il? 

Recumes-nous ? 
!§ 



,Recutes-vous?' 
| Recurent-ils ? 



i Rendis-je ? 
(Rendis-tu? 
; Rendit-il ? 
. Rendimes-nous ? 
Rendites-vous ? 
Rendirent-ils ? 



^•8 



Ai-je 






As-tu 


g^ 


^ © 


A-t-il 


v5 

'1 


§K 


Avons-nous 




Avez-vous 


'5 


Ont-ils 





Past Indefinite (56). 



Ai-je 

As-tu 

A-t-il 

Avons-nous 

Avez-vous 

Ont-ils J 



Ai-je 




6* 


As-tu 




8 ~S 


A-t-il 


£ 


Avons-nous 


■ a 


|3 


Avez-vous 




Kq-a 


Ont-ils 




s 

«» 



tJ3"i 



6 'Ai-je 
As-tu 
A-t-il 

Avons-nous 
Avez-vous 
Ont-ils 



S5 

k © 



Pluperfect (58). 



Avais-je 


| 6 


Avais-tu 


*~ % "S 


Avait-il 
Avions-nous 


v 2 £- 


Aviez-vous 


•j S 


Avaient-ils 



Avais-je 

Avais-tu 
Avait-il 
Avions-nous 
Aviez-vous 
Avaient-ils J 



Avais-je 

Avais-tu 

Avait-il 

Avions-nous 

Aviez-vous 

Avaient-ils 



Eus-j e 






Eus-tu 


_, 


K| "S '< 


Eut-il 
Eumes-nous 




g a*. 
SI 


Eutes-vous 


S 


Eurent-ils 




■aj 



«;2 

Past Anterior (57). 

Eus-j e 

Eus-tu 

Eut-il 

Eumes-nous 

Eutes : vous 

Eurent-ils 



Eus-j e 


o 


Eus-tu 


^© 


Eut-il 


- ^ 


Eumes-nous 


*1I 


Eutes-vous 


Eurent-ils 


e 






Avais-je 
Avais-tu 

Avait-il 
Avions-nous 
Aviez-vous 
Avaient-ils 



o | Eus-j e 
^ k, © j Eus-tu 
s ^ *s I Eut-il 
§" £ § Eumes-nous 
u ^ g ! Eutes-vous 

£ I Eurent-ils 



iS « 



2 ^ 
2 ^S: 



5* 



80 



GRAMMAR. 



Aimerai-ie? 
Aimeras-tu ? 
Aimera-t-il ? 
Ainierons-nous ? 
Aimerez-vous ? 
Aiineront-ils ? 



Future (59). 



Finirai-je? ^ 

Finiras-tu? ^ -g 

Finira-t-il ? S *,. 

Finirons-nous ? ^ ■< 

Finirez-vous ? ^ '£ 
Fiuiront-ils ? <£. 



Recevrai-je? < 

Recevras-tu ? k, < 
Recevra-t-il ? ss * 
Recevrons-nous 1 .3 4 
Reeevrez-vous? °2 | 
Rece\Tont-ils ? 5 



Future Anterior (59). 



Aurai-je 


>» . 


Auras-tu 


~. i-e 


Aiira-t-il 
Aurons-nous 




Aurez-vous 


&2~ 


Auront-ils 



Aiirai-je 

Auras-tu 

Aura-t-il 

Aurons-nous 

Aurez-vous 

Auront-ils 






Rendrai-je? 
Rendras-tu ? 
Rendra-t-il? 
Rendrons-nous ? 
Rendrez-vous ? 
Rendront-ils ? 



Aurai-je 


5? d 


Auras-tu 


So 


Aura-t-il 


«*■• >< *». 


Aurons-nous 

Aurez-vous 

Auront-ils 





Aurai-je 

Auras-tu 

Aura-t-il 

Aurons-nous 

Aurez-vous 

Auront-ils 



S3** 
«1 



8S 

<>. « © 



Aimerais-je? 
Aimerais-tu ? H S 
Aimerait-ils ? ^ * 
Aimerions-nous ? |^ 
Ainieriez-vous ? Sq § 
Ainieraient-ils ? ^ 



Aurais-je 

Aurais-tu 

Aurait-il 

Aurions-nous 

Auriez-vous 

Auraient-ils 






CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present (39). 



Finirais-je? ^ 

Finirais-tu ? ^ -g 

Finirait-il? 2^ 

Finirions-nous ? o ^ 

Finiriez-vous ? sq g 

Finiraient-ils ? ^ 



Recevrais-je? 6 

Recevrais-tu ? ^ © 
Recevrait-il? S^ 
Recevrions-nous? § .§ 
Recevriez-vous ? &q g 
Recevraient-ils ? £ 



Past. 



Aurais-je 

Aurais-tu 

Aurait-il 

Aurions-nous 

Auriez-vous 

Auraient-ils 



lZ ^ "3 



5Q<g, 



Aurais-je 

Aurais-tu 

Aurait-il 

Aurions-nous 

Auriez-vous 

Auraient-ils 



See page 206 for the 19th Exercise. 



Rendrais-je ? 
Rendrais-tu ? 
Rendrait-il ? 
Rendrions-nous ? 
Rendriez-vous ? 
Rendraient-ils 1 



~1 <s 





c 1 ^ 


5 


2s 


?- 





w 


E§ 


t 


J °a 


£ 



Aurais-je 

Aurais-tu 

Aurait-il 

Aurions-nous 

Auriez-vous 

Auraient-ils 



II 



£ © 

« © 



Remark. — All our resumes on verbs must be made interrogative 
by the learners themselves. 



Remarks ox the preceding Paradigm. 

1?9 ter. First. Certain tenses are not used interrogatively ; viz. : 
those of the imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive modes (168) ; the 
interrogative form falling on verbs in the first proposition when 
verbs are conjugated in the last two modes. 

Ex.: 



Faut-il que je marche? 
Me faudra-t-il venir? 



Must I walk f 

Shall I have to come? 



are examples where subjunctives and infinitives are used in inter- 
rogations as complements of other verbs. 

ISO. Second. In the first person singular of the indicative, the 
verb rendre, to render, rejects this form of interrogation ; so do 
monosyllabic verbs generally (15) in that person, whatever their 



VERB. 81 

conjugation. In such cases the interrogative form, est-cequef (167), 

must be adopted. Custom, however, sanctions the use of the follow* 

ing expressions. 

Ex.: 

Fais-je? dis-je? dois-je? vois-je? Do If say I? must If do I see? am 
suis-je? vais-je? puis-je? If do I go f can If 

181. Third. When verbs are in simple tenses (154), a hyphen 
(443) connects the verb and the pronoun subject : 

Ex.: 

Finissai-je? Aimerai-je? Did I finish f Shall I love? 

182. In compound tenses (155), the same sign is placed between 
the auxiliary and the subject. 

Ex.: 

Avait-il aime ? Eut-ilfini? Had he loved f Had he finished f 

183. Fourth. When verbs end with a vowel (5), the subjects or 
nominatives il, elle, on, he, she, they, are preceded by a euphonic 
t placed between two hyphens. 

Ex.: 

Aime-t-il ? Aime-t-elle ? Does he love ? Does she love ? 

A-t-on aime ? A-t-on fait ? Have they loved f Have they done f 

Aimera-t-on ? Suivra-t-on? Shall they love f Will they follow f 

184. Fifth. Before the pronoun je, I, in the singular, the e mute 
ending the verb is changed into closed 4 (10), in the first person; 
In compound tenses this change falls on the auxiliary. 

Ex.: 

Aime-je? Eusse-je aime ? Did I love? Had I loved f 

Pourquoi, why; combien, comment, answering to: how much, 
how many, are used with this form of interrogation. 

QUESTIONS. 

179 ter. Que remarquez-vous premierement dans le tableau des 
verbes conjugues interrogativement ? 180. Quelle est la seconde re- 
marque, et quels sont les verbes monosyllabiques dans cette personne 
qui adoptent ce mode d' interrogation ? 181. Comment appelle-t-on le 
signe qui s6pare le verbe du sujet? 182. Quand place-t-on ce signe 
entre Pauxiliaire et le sujet? 183. Dans quel cas le sujet est-il pre- 
cede d'un t euphonique ? 184. Dans quel cas Ye muet qui termine 
cette premiere personne du verbe se change-t-il en 6 ferme ? 



82 



GRAMMAR. 



To Teachers. 

The introduction to the art of learning modern languages consisting in 
the perfect knowledge of general principles on verbs, at this first stage of 
tuition we would recommend particularly to teachers the rehearsal of our pre- 
ceding exercises. Their practical transformation from the affirmative to the 
interrogative form, or from the interrogative affirmative back to the inter- 
rogative negative, familiarizing pupils with French sounds, will accustom their 
organs of speech to the proper articulations. No reasonable precepts ean be 
given in writing on this practical part of study — pronunciation. Yet, on 
account of the uniformity of sounds in the ending of each mode or in every 
tense, more than in any other parts of speech, verbs are calculated to make a 
deep impression on the organs ; and inflexions taken by verbs in each tense, 
by their repeated regularity, in a few weeks will lead to more profitable 
results than would voluminous orthoepic treatises. 



CONTINUATION OF THE TWENTY-FIRST LESSON. 

185. French verbs, as we have seen in our paradigms on the four 
regular conjugations, are composed of two parts, one invariable, 
called stem (radical, in French, from the Latin radix, root) ; the 
other variable, showing the connection which verbs have with mode, 
time, number, or person, which part is called endings, terminations, 
or inflexions. 

See page 208 for the 20th Exercise. 



In the verbs : 
Aimer 1 

Finir 1 the stem is 

Recevoir j (176) 
Rendre, J 



f aim I their terminations, in- f ER, 

j fin [ flexions, or endings of J IR, 

) rec j the present infinitive 1 OIR or EYOIR, 

[ rend J are: [ RE. 



To conjugate verbs, add simply to their stem the terminations or 
endings of the model verbs of their conjugation. Therefore, the verb 
chanter, to sing, in replacing its stem or invariable part by that 
of the verb which it is desired to conjugate, must be used with every 
verb of that conjugation, leaving the endings such as they stand in 
the paradigms. 



Infinitive, 



Present indicative, 

Imperfect 

Past definite. 



("Aimer 
< Louer 
( Chanter 

J'aime 



ive, C J'ai 

i J'ai 

i, ( J'ai 



"Finir 'Recevoir Rendre. 

Joutr Concerof'r . Prendre. 

PartiV Apercero?r Comprentfre. 

Jejoui's Je recoj'a Je rends. 

Je jouissais Je recevaia Je renda?"*. 

Jejou/* Je recus Je rendis. 



Same tenses of 



VERB. 



Tirer, to draw, 



( Stem ( e, 

i Je tir -j ais, 

f f is ' 

Ternir, to tarnish, < Je tern < issais, 

I lis, 

f f ois, 

-j Je perc < evais, 

( (175) ( us, etc. 



Percevoir, to perceive, 



1S6. Irregular verbs are verbs which deviate from the general 
rule in forming their tenses or persons. Defective, defectueux, is the 
name given to those which are not conjugated in some tenses. 



IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 

First Conjugation in ER (62). 

Indicative present, je vais, tu vas, il va, nous, 
vous, reg., ils vont. Imperfect, Past Definite, reg. 
Future, j'irai. Cond., j'irais, etc. Imp., va, allons, 
allez (135). Subj., que j'aille, que tu ailles, qu'il 
aille, que nous allions, que vous alliez, qu'ils aillent. 
Imperf., que j'allasse. Participles, allant, alle-e 
(260). 

Thus is conjugated s'en idler* (873), to go away. 

The Future and Conditional have for stem, enver: 
j'enverrai, tu enverras; j'enverrais, tu enverrais. 
In the other tenses this verb is regular. 



187. Aller, to go. ■ 



188. Envoyer, 
to send. 



To Teachers. 
Tn regular verbs of the first conjugation, such as travailler, hrouiller, etc., 
will be found the analogous sounds of substantives having the liquid l. 
Yiz. : Je travaille, travaillons, have corresponding sounds in paille, volaille, 
caille, haillon, etc. In hrouiller, je brouille — grenouille, houille, citrouille, 
etc. In the verbs proportionner, confectionner, is found the diphthong (14) Hon, 
where the articulation of t is not felt; such is also the case in words ending 
with Hon, forming a numerous class, nation, portion, ambition, etc. 

Second Conjugation in IR (62). 

Ind. Present, j'acquiers, tu acquiers, il acquiert, 
nous, vous, reg., ils acquierent. Imperf., reg. Past 
Def., j'acquis, etc. Past Ind., j'ai acquis. Fut. and 
Cond., reg. Imperative, acquiers, acquerons, acque- 
rez. Subj., que j'acquiere, que tu acquieres, que 
nous acquerions, etc. Imperf., que j'acquisse, etc. 

Thus are conjugated conquerir, requerir, s'enquerir. 



189. Acqu6rir, 
to acquire. 



* Conjugated reflectively with another verb, aller is followed by the 
objective pronoun. Ex. : Je vais me (265). 



M 



GRAMMAR. 



190. Assaillir, 
to assault. 



191. Bouillir, 
to boil. 



192. Courir, 
to run. 



193. Cueillir, 
to gather. 



194. Faillir, 
to fail. 

195. Ferir. 
frapp er, to strike. 



Ind., j'assaille Iniperf., j'assaillais 

J Subj., que j'assaille. Part., assaillant, assailli-e. 
Analogous sounds are found in murailU, icaille, 

y bataille, etc. 

Ind.. je bous , nous bouillons. Imper: 

bouillais , nous bouillions. Fut., je bouillirai. 

Cond., je bouillirais. Imper., bous. bouillons, bouil- 

lez. Subj., que je bouille Imperf., que je 

bouillisse. Part., bouillant, bouilli-e. 

Analogous sounds in rouille, houillc, fouille, etc. 

Ind.. je cours , nous courons. Fut., je cour- 

I rai. Cond., je courrais. Subj.. que je coure. Im- 
I perf., que je courusse. Part., eourant, eouru-e. 
■J Analogous sounds in courage, cour, courtage, cour- 
bette, etc. 

Thus are conjugated all the compounds accourir, 
\ concourir, parcourir, etc. 

Ind., je cueille, tu cueilles, il cueille. nous cueillons 
. tous cueillez. Future, je cueilleraL Cond., 
je cueillerais. Part., cueillant. cueilli-e. 

Conjugate the same, accueiUir, recueillir. 

Analogous sounds in feuille, ceil, cerfeuil, or : 
tilhul, fauteuil. 

This verb is actually regular, and in every :: 
may be conjugated like the model Terb of the second 
conjugation (1>. B 

Same sound of l in pailh, futaille, mitraille, c 

I? used only in the present of the infinitive, or 
with this expression : sans coup ferir, without striking 
a blow. 



196. Fair, 

to take flight. 



f» 



Ind., je fuis nous fuyons Imperf., 

fuyais nous fuyions. Past Def.. je fuis 

nous fuimes. Subj., que je fuie. Imperf., 

triase ., que nous fuissions. 

In the same manner eonjug ;ir, to run 

away. 



19 T. Ge^ir etre ( ^ s use( * ^ith the following form? 

j la git mon espoir, here is my hope, or in 



allonge, 
to lie down 



1 sons of the present and imperfect of the indicative 
• [mode:!. . lis gisent, elle gM ^aient. 



198. Mourir, 
to die. 



Ind., je meurs nous mour.: Im- 

Iperf.. je mour nous mourions. Past Def., 
je mourus , nous mourumes Fu: 
mourrai. nous mour: I., je mourrais. nous 
\ mourrions. Imp., meurs, mourons, nxourez. Part, 
mourant, mo:- 

Remark. — This verb, like many others of the 
same conjugation (192), doubles the r in the future 
and conditional tenses. 



VERB. 






199. BiMtii, 

to feel or smell. 



200, 



, \ 



?ut. 



201. Tressaillir, 
to shudder. 



•20*2. Venir, 
to come. 



203. Vetir, 

to dress or clothe. 



IncL, je sens. Subj., que je sente Part., 

sentant, senti-e. 

This verb is regular in all the other tenses. The 
nasal en contained in this verb will be an occasion 
for exercises on those sounds not found in the Eng- 
lish language. 

Ind.. je sors Subj., que je sorte. 

Conjugate the same its compounds ressortir, as- 
sortir, saillir, etc. 

Saillir is conjugated like assaillir (190), to assail. 

Is also conjugated like saillir or assaillir. 

These verbs offer a good ground for exercises on 
the liquid L. whose sound occurs in a numerous 
class of words, maille, paille, ouaille, etc. 

Ind., je viens, tu viens, il vient, nous venons, tous 

venez, ils viennent. Fut., je viendrai. Cond., je 

rais. Subj., que je vienne. Imperf., que je 

vinsse , que nous vinssions Part. Tenant, 

venu-e. 

Conjugate thus all verbs ending in enir, such as 
.r, devenir, convenir. 130. 

Ind., je vets, tu vets, il ve: u vetons, 

vous vetez, ils vetent. Imperf.. je vetais. Past Def., 
je vetis. Fut., je vetirai. Cond., je vetirais. Im- 
per., vets, veton : -abj., que je vete. Imperf., 

que je vetisse. Part., vetant, vetu-e. 

Conjugate thus revetir, devetir. 



Third Conjugation in OIK (62). 



204. S'asseoir, 
to s-it down. 



205. Devoir, 

to owe. 



*J06. Dechoir, 
to decay. 



Ind., je m'assied, tu t'assieds, il s'assied, nous 
asseyons. vous vous asseyez, ils s'asseient. 

r£, je m'asseyais, nous nous asseyions, vous 
vous asseyiez, ils s'asseyaient. Past Def., je m'assis. 

Fut., je m'assierai or je m'asseierai Cond., je 

m/^ssierais or m/asseierais. Imp., assied-toi. a ; 
ons-nous (41), asseyez-vous. Subj., que je m/asseie, 
que to ; rie, que nous nous a- 

ions, que vous vous asseyiez (111). Imperf., que je 
m'assisse. Part., s'asseyant, assis-e. 

rasseoir, to sit again, is conjugated the same. 

This vert) is regular. The only deviation from the 
general rule, as we have already noticed, is the taking 
of the circumflex accent on its masculine :' 
to distinguish it from the contracted article du I 

Ind., je deehois,tu deehois, il dechoit, nous dechoy- 
ons, vous dec-hoyez, ils dechoient. Imperf., je decheais 

, nous deeheions Fut., je decherrai , 

nous decherron?. Cond., je decherrais. Imper., 
dechoie, dech.07 dechoyez. Subj.. que je 

dechoie, que tu dechoies , que nous dechoyions 

que vous dechoyiez, qu'ils dechoient. Imperf., 

que je dechusse (143) , que nous dechussions. 

\ Part., decheant, dechu-e. 






GRAMMAR. 



Unipcrsonal. II faut. il fallait, il fallut, il faudra, 

20T. Falloir. I qu'il faille, correspond -with the present, imperfect, 

it is neoesSCtry. 1 P* 8 * definite, future of the indicative mode, and pre- 



20S. Mouvoir, 
to move. 



2©9. Pleuvoir, 
to rain. 



210. PrSvaloir, 

to prevail. 



211. Pourvoir, 
to provide. 



'212. Pouvoir, 
to 6e a&Ze. 



212 bis. Savoir. 
to A-woir. 



213. S6oir, 

to &<?/?/, to become, 



sent of the subjunctive, etc. 

Ind., je raeus, tu mens, il meut. nous mouvons, 
vous niouvez, ils nieuvent. Imperf., je mouvais. 
Past Def., je mus. Fut., je niouvrai. Cone 
mouYTais. Imper.. meus. mouTcns, mouvez. Subj., 
que je meure, que nous mouvions, qu'ils meuvent. 
Imperf., que je niusse, que tu musses, qu'il mut (143). 
Part., niouvant, mu-e. 

Um£per9<maL H pleut, il pleuvait, il plut, il pleuvra, 
il pleuvrait; il faut, il faudra qu'il pleuve, il fallait 
qu'il plut, answer the present, imperfect, past de- 
finite, and future of the indicative mode: the con- 
ditional, present, and imperfect of the subjunctive. 

Analogous sound of the syllable eu is found in 
the words plcur, heure, fleur, malheur, bonheur, etc. 

Ind., je preYaux. Imperf., je prevalais. Past 
Def.. je prevalus. Put,, je prevaudrai. Cond., je 

prevaudrais. Subj.. que je prevale , que nous 

prevaillions. Imperf., que je prevalusse. Part., 
pr£valant, pr£valu-e. 

Ind., je pourvois, tu pourvois. il pourvoit, nous 
pourvoyons. vous pourvoyez, ils pourvoient. Imperf., 

je pourvoyais , nous pourvoyions. Past Def., 

je pourvus nous pourvumes. Put., je pour- 

voirai. Cond., je pourvoirais. Imper., pourvoie, 

pourvoyons Subj.. que je pourvoie. que nous 

pourvoyions, que vous pourvoyiez (111). Imperf., 

que je pourvusse , que nous pourvussions. 

Part., pourvoyant, pourvu-e. 

Ind., je peux ou je puis, tu peux, il pent, nous 
pouvons, vous pouvez. ils peuvent (154). Fir 
pourrai, tu pourras, il pourra. Cond., je pourrais, 
tu pourrais. No imperative. Subj., que je pail 
que nous puissions. Imperf., que je pusse, que tu 
pusses. Part., pouvant, pu. 

Remark. — In interrogations use puis-jef or Eet-ee 
que je peux ? 

Present Ind., je sais, tu sais, il salt, nous savons, 
vous savez, ils savent. Imperf., je sa 
je saurai, tu sauras. etc. Cond., je saurais. tu sau- 
rais. etc. Imper., sache. sachons, saehez. Subj., 

i que je sachcetc. Imperf., que je susse — derivative 

{ of past def., je sus, tu sus, il sn: 



I 



f This irr 

following 

I il se'yait. ' 



irregular defective verb is used only in the 
tenses. Ind.. il sied, ils sieent. Imperf., 

Fut., il si era.. Cond., il siera.it [1133)1 

i»waiiHi, with the same meaning, replaces all 
its other te: 

Analogous sounds in *i£ge. p.- 



214. Surseoir, 
to postpone. 



215. Valoir, voir, 
to be worth, to see. 



VERB. 87 

( This defective verb is used only in the following 

tenses (186). Ind., jesursois , nous sursoyons. Im- 

pejrf., je su: irsoyions. Past Def., 

je sur- nous sursimes. Fut., je sursoirai. 

ConcL, je sursoirais. Subj., que je sursoie 

Imperf., que je sursisse. Past Part., sursis-e. 

Do iwt confound the masculine form of the past 
participle, sursis, postponed, with the substantive, 
sursis, postponement : the last i3 preceded by the 
article, etc. 

Ind., je vaux, tu vaux, il vaut, nous valons, 
vous valez, ils valent. Put., je vaudrai. Cond., je 
vaudr 

Analogous sounds are found in the words veait, 
beau, marteau, etc. 

Voir, to see, in the future and conditional is je 
verrai, tu verras, je verrais, etc. 



Remark. — Our indications of analogous sounds found in verbs and 
substantives are mere suggestions to teachers. Practice will show 
tha: :rd of the language may have its pronunciation illus- 

trated by similar sounds found in verbs. Therefore, brouiller, 
miller, are practical exercises on such words as rouille, brouillon, 
haillon, ~houilU,fouille, 

QUESTIONS. 

De combien de parties se composent les verbes, et comment 
fait-on pour conjuguer un verbe quelconque sur les verbes modeles? 
186. Comment s'appellent les verbes qui s'ecartent de la regie 
'mjuguez le verbe alter dans le present de Findi- 
cati: la racine du futur et du conditionnel du verbe 

envoyer? 189. Quel est le present de Tindicatif du verbe acqu4rirf 
190. Comment fait assaillir au subjonctif present? 191. Quel est 
rimparfait du subjonctif du verbe bouillir? 192. Quels changements 
6prouve courir dans le futur et dans le conditionnel present? 193. 
: le verbe caeillir au passe defini? 194. Qu'avez-vous a 
faire remarquer sur le verbe faillir? 195. Dans quel c&sferir est-il 
emi k96. Comment fait le verbe fuir a rimparfait du sub- 

jono: st Temploi du verbe gesir en francais? 198. 

die est la maniere d'epeler le futur et le conditionnel present du 
verbe mourir? 199. En quel mode le verbe sentir est-il irregulier? 
200. Comment fait le verbe sortir au subjonctif present? 201. Com- 
ment conjuguez-vous tre.ssaillir? 202. Comment fait venir au passe 
defini? 203. Recitez l'indicatif present du verbe vetir? 204. 
Comment fait s'asseoir au conditionnel present? 205. Qu'avez-vous a 



88 



GRAMMAR. 



faire remarquer sur le verbe devoir? 206. R6citez-nous Pimparfait 
de Tindicatif du verbe diclwir? 207. Comment emploie-t-on fa lloirf 
& Quel est Tindicatif present du verbe mouvoir? 209. Conjuguez 
dans tons ses temps le verbe unipersonnelj^Zewiw? 210. Quel est le 
conditionnel present du verbe pre'valoir; et quel est Timparfait du 
subjonctif de ce meme verbe? 211. Eecitez Timparfait du sub- 
jonctif du verbe po\irvoir? 212. Que remarquez-vous dans le present 
de Tindicatif du verbe pouvoir? 212 bis. Conjuguez-nous le present 
du subjonctif du verbe savoir? 213. Comment classez-vous le verbe 
se"oir? 21-4. Conjuguez Timparfait du subjonctif du verbe surseoir? 
215. Quel est le present de Tindicatif du verbe valoir ; et quel 
ehangement eprouve voir dans le futur et dans le conditionnel? 



Fourth Conjugation in RE (62). 



216. Absoudre, 
to absolve. 



217. Atteindre, 
to reach. 



218. Battre, 
to beat. 



219. Boire, 
to drink. 



220. Braire, 
to bray. 



221. Bruire, 
to rustle. 



Present Ind., j'absous, tu absous, il absout, nous 
absolvons, vons absolvez, ils absolvent. Imperf., 
j'absolvais. Xo past definite nor imperfect of 
the subj. Fut., j'absoudrai. Cond., j'absoudrais. 
Subj., que j'absolve. Part., absolvant, absout-e. 
Conjugate in the same way dissoudre and resoudre. 

Remark. — In the past definite, the last is je 
resolus, nous resoltimes; the first, je dissous, nous 
[ dis so times. 

( Ind., j'atteins. Imperf., j'atteignais. Past def., 
J j'atteignis. Fut., j'atteindrai. Cond., j'atteindrais. 
\ Part., atteignant, atteint-e. 
t See No, 

Ind., je bats, tu bats, il bat Past def., je 

battis. Part., battant. battu-e. Conjugate thus all 
verbs ending in battre. such as combattre, abattre, 
etc. Analogous sounds in dtre, maratre, emplatre, 
etc. 

Ind., je bois, tu bois, il boit, nous buvons, vous 
buvez, ils boivent. Imperf., je buvais. Past def., 
je bus. Fut., je boirai. Cond., je boirais. Subj., 
que je boive, que tu boive, qu'il boive, que nous 
buvions, que vous buviez. qu'ils boivent. Imperf., 
que je busse. Part., buvant, bu-e. 

Defective verb, very little used, except in the 
following tenses and forms (1S6) : il brait, il brayait : 
il braira, il brairait : part., brayant : corresponding 
with the present, imperfect, and future of the indi- 
cative, conditional, and present participle. 

Bruire, is generally conjugated under the uniper- 
sonal form. II bruit, there is a little rustling ; ils 
bruissent, they rustle ; il bruyait, it icas rustling. 
Ex. : Les flots bruissent, le feuillage bruit, the 
[ waters, the leaves are rustling.. 



VERB. 






222. Clore, 
to close. 



1* 

I th 



223. Conclure, 
to conclude. 



224. Confire, 
to preserve. 



225. Ccnnaitre, 
to kr. 



226. Coudre, 
to stitch. 



227. Craindre, 
to fear. 



338. Croire, 
to beliece. 



229. Dire, 
to say. 



230. I 

to write. 



Defective verb used only under these forms : 
ci» B } \nir and terminer render 

onch verb nearly obsolete. 

IncL, je conclus. Part, coneluant, conclu-e. Con- 
jugate in the same manner exelure, to exclude. This 
last verb will be a good exercise on the syllable ex, 
found in the verb exister and many su 1 % 
existence, exemple, cxageration, e 

b verb. Ind.. je conns Imperf., 

I je confisa: abj-, que je connse. Imperf., que 

je : 

■';•€ des confitures is generally used in the place 
of this verb. 

Ind., je connais. tu connais , nous connaissons. 

Subj., que je connaisse. Imperf., que je eonnusse. 
Part., conna. :^u-e. 

lormerly spelt connoUtre. Con- 
B thus croitre. paraUr-: 

Ind., je couds. tu couds. il coud (123), nous cou- 
Imperf.. je cc 
nous cousi :.. je cousis. Fut.. je cou- 

drai. CondL, je coudrais. Imper., Cous, cousons, 
cousez. Subj.. que je couse. Imperf., que je cou- 
-u-e. 
Conjugate thus its compound recoudre, to stitch 
over (128), or decoudre, to unrip (107" . 

Ind., je crains. nous craignons. Im- 

perf., je craign ..jecrain- 

drai. Cond., je craindrais. Part., eraignant, craint. 
Conjugate I i aindre, to constrain. 

Ind., je crois. nous croyons. ils croient. Imperf., 

je croyais, nous i& Imp., eroie. croyons. 

. . que je croie. que nous que tou3 

:. Imperf., que je crusse. Part., 

croyant, cru-e (111). 

In 1 5, rous dites. Subj., que 

je dise, que nous disions. Imperf., que je dj 
que n iisant, di:- 

::irk. — Amongst the compounds of this verb, 
redire, to tell over, is the only one conjugated the 
same. In the present indicative second pe 
plural, the others end in es vous 

medisez; while in the same person, redire is 
redites. 

Ind.. j'eeris. tu Sens, notu rbr m& Imperf., 
j'ecri lef, j"ecr: rivimes. F 

j'ecriraL B eerivions. 

Imperf., que j'ecrivisse , que no.; 

:rivant. eerit-e. 

Conjugate thus verbs ending in crire, such as 
prescrire, proscrire, etc. 



90 



GRAMMAR. 



231. Faire, 
to do or to make. 



[ Ind., je fais, tu fais, il fait, nous faisons (954), 
vous faites, ils font. Fut., je ferai (179). Cond., je 
ferais. Imp., fais, faisons, faites. Subj., que je fasse, 
que nous fassions. Iniperf., que je fisse...., que nous 
fissions. Part., faisant,. fait-e. Conjugate thus its 
compounds re/a ire, contrefaire, or verbs ending in 
aire. Sometimes the past definite of this verb 
is conjugated with the meaning of dire, answering 
to, cried I, cried he. 



232. Frire, 
to fry. 



233. Joindre, 
to join. 



Very little used, except in the present and future 
of the indicative, je fris, tu fris, il frit. No plural in 
that tense. Fut., je frirai, tu frira...., nous frirons. 
Cond., je frirais...., nous fririons. 'In every other 
tense this verb is used in connection with faire : nous 
faisions frire, nous f imes frire, we were frying, we 
did fry. 

Ind., je joins..., nous joignons.... Imperf., je joi- 
gnais, nous joignions (111). Past def., je joignis. 
Fut., je joindrai. Cond., nous joindrions. Imper., 
joins, joignons. Subj., que je joigne..., que nous joi- 
gnions (111). Part., joignant, joint -e (936, 1137). 
Conjugate in the same manner its compound rejoin- 
dre, to rejoin. 



234. Lire, 
to read. 



235. Luire, 
to shine. 



Ind., je lis...., nous lisons. Imperf., jelisais. Past 
def., je lus (129). Part., lisant, lu-e. Conjugate thus 
elire, to elect. 

The present infinitive of this verb has the same 
sound as lyre, lyre in English. 

Ind., je luis. No past definite nor imperfect of the 
subj. Part., luisant (267, 766). Conjugate thus 
reluire, to shine again. 



236. Mettre, 
to put. 



Ind., je mets, tu mets, il met (434), nous mettons. 
Imperf., je mettais, tu mettais. Past def., je mis. 
Imper., mets, mettons. Subj., que je mette... Im- 
perf., que je misse. Part., mettant, mis-e. Conjugate 
thus verbs ending in mettre, such as admettre, 
soumettre, etc. 



23¥. Moudre, 
to grind. 



Ind., je mouds, tu mouds, il moud (958 bis), nous 
moulons, vous moulez, ils moulent. Imperf., je 
moulais... Past def., je moulus... Fut., je moudrai. 
Subj., que je moule, que nous moulions. Imperf., 
que je moulusse, que nous moulussions. Part., mou- 
lant, moulu-e. Conjugate in the same manner emou- 
dre, to sharpen, remoudre, to grind again, etc. 

Remark. — The three persons plural of the present 
indicative, all of the imperfect of the same mode, and 
the present subjunctive, of this verb, though having 
different meanings, are spelt like the corresponding 
persons and tenses of the verb mouler, to model, 
belonging to the first conjugation. 



VERB. 



91 



238. Naitre, 
to be born. 



239. Paitre, 
to feed or pasture. 



240. Paraitre ; 
to appear. 



241. Peindre, 
to paint. 



Ex.: 

Nous moulons notre ble, 
Vous mouliez votre 

grain, 
II faut que je moule mon 

orge, 
Nous moulions une 

statue, 
II faut que je moule son 

buste, 



We grind our wheat. 
You were grinding your 

grain. 
I must grind my barley. 

We were modelling a 

statue. 
I must modehhia bust. 



f Ind., Je nais... Imperf., je naissais. Past def., 
je naquis (128). Subj., que je naisse..., que nous 
naissions. Part., naissant, ne-e. 

Remark. — As long as persons or things spoken 

of are living or existing, this verb is conjugated 

with Stre in the present; and in the past if dead, 

destroyed (728) or having changed mode of existence. 

Ex.: 



Cet homme est ne" a Lon- 

dres, 
Cet enfant etait ne a 

Paris, 
Cette pyramide est batie 
sur le rocher, P autre 
V etait sur le sable, 



That man is (or was) bom 

in London. 
That child was born in 

Paris. 
That pyramid is built 

upon the rock, the 

other was on san$. 



In the preceding examples, in French, the pre- 
sent implies the existence of beings animated or not, 
the past expresses the cessation of their existence. 

Ind., je pais, tu pais, il pait, nous p^issons. Imperf., 
je paissais, nous paissions. Fut., je paitrai (179 bis). 
Cond., je paitrais. Subj., que je paisse. Having no 
past def., there is no imperfect in this mode. Part., 
paissant. 

Remark. — The compound repaitre in the past par- 
ticiple is repu-e, satiated. 

Ind., je parais, tu parais..., nous paraissons, vous 
J paraissez. Part., paraissant, paru-e. Conjugate in 
1 the same manner its compounds, reparaitre, dis- 
[ paraitre, comparaitre, etc. 

r Ind., je peins, tu peins, il peint (122, 178), nous 
peignons. Imperf., je peignais. Imper., peins, pei- 
gnons. Subj., que je peigne..., que nous peignions 
(111). Imperf., que je peignisse. Part., peignant, 
peint-e. See 128 for past definites of this conjuga- 
tion. Repeindre, depeindre, are conjugated the same. 

Remark. — Do not confound the imperfect of the 
indicative, and present of the subjunctive, of this 
verb, with the same tenses of peigner, to comb, verb 
of the first conjugation. 

Ex.: 

Je peignais un pay sage, I was painting a landscape. 

II faut que je peigne I must paint a sea-view. 
une marine, 

Je peignais l'enfant, / was combing the child. 

II faut que j erne peigne, I must comb myself. 



92 



GRAMMAR. 



241 bis. Plaire, 
to please. 



242. Prendre, 
to take. 



243. KSsoudre, 
to resolve. 



244. Eire, 

to laugh. 



245. Rompre, 
to break. 



246. Suffire, 
to suffice. 



247. Suivre, 
to follow. 



248. Taire, 

to conceal. 



249. Traire, 
to milk. 



250. Vaincre, 
to vanquish. 



In cases such as these, the context indicates the 
true meaning. 

Ind., je plais, tu plais, il plait, nous plaisons.... 
Part., plaisant, plu. Conjugate the verbs deplaire, 
complaire, etc., in the manner indicated* for the simple 
plaire. 

Ind., je prends...., nous prenons...., ils prennent. 
Imper., prends, prenons, prenez. Subj., que je prenne, 
que nous prenions, qu'ils prennent. (Whenever the 
syllable following has an e mute, n is doubled.) Part., 
prenant, pris-e. See 117 for the imperfect of the 
indicative. Conjugate in the same manner the 
compound reprendre, etc. 

Ind., je resous, tu rSsous, nous resolvons. Imperf., 
J je resolvais... Imper., resous, resolvons. Subj., que 
1 je resolve. Imperf., que je resolusse. Part., resolvant, 
[ resolu-e or reroute. 

f Ind., je ris.... Past def., je ris..., nous rimes. 
J Part., riant (1156). Conjugate thus its compound, 
j sourire, to smile. 
[ Analogous sounds in souris (1185), sournois, sourd. 

f Ind., je romps... Past def., je rompis... Part., 
J rompant, rompu-e. Conjugate in the same way in- 
1 terrompre, corrompre, etc. These verbs are good 
L exercises on the nasal sound on (6). 

(Ind., je sums.... Past def., je sums..., nous suffi- 
mes. Part., suffisant, sum. In this verb the 
French u has its natural sound, as in tine, ltme, 
fortune. 

(Ind., je suis, tu suis, il suit, nous suivons.... Im- 
per., suivons. Subj., que je suive.... Part., sui van t, 
suivi-e. 
Conjugate thus poursuivre, to track. 

( Ind., je tais. Past def., je tus. Part., taisant, tu-e. 

I Remark. — This verb is generally used in the 
reflective voice in French (93, 1175), with the mean- 
ing of to keep silent. 

Ind., je trais, tu trais, il trait, nous trayons...„ 
ils traient (111). Subj., que je traie..., que nous 
trayions No imperf., this verb being defective. 

Conjugate thus distraire, to divert or distract, 
abstraire, soustraire, etc. 

This verb is seldom used. Ind., je vainc, tu vaincs, 
il vainc..., nous vainquons. Imperf., je vainquais..., 
nous vainquions. Imper., vaincs, vainquons. Subj., 
que je vainque...., que nous vainquions. Imperf., que 
je vainquisse. Part., vainquant, vaincu-e. 

Conjugate thus convaincre, to convince. 



VERB. 93 

Remark. — The foregoing verbs should be given to pupils as 
exercises. With the help of our model verbs, they will fill up the 
blank left for the regular parts, and dispose of mode, tense, and 
person, by means of our resumes on verbs. 

QUESTIONS. 

216. Quelles sont les trois personnes plurielles du present de 
Pindicatif du verbe dbsoudre? 217. Quel est le futur du verbe 
atteindre? 218. Quel est le participe present du verbe battre? 
219. Quel est Pimparfait de Pindicatif du verbe boire ? 220. Recitez 
les temps du verbe defectueux braire f 221. Quels sont d'ordinaire 
les mots en rapport avec le verbe bruire ? 222. Comment emploie- 
t-on le verbe clore? 223. Recitez le present du subjonctif du 
verbe conelure? 224. Quel est le passe defini du verbe confire? 
225. Recitez Pimparfait du subjonctif du verbe connaitre ? 226. Quel 
est le passe determine ou defini du verbe coudre ? 227. Recitez Pin- 
dicatif present du verbe craindre ? 228. Donnez-nous le subjonctif 
present de croire? 229. .Quel est le present de Pindicatif du verbe 
dire? 230. Quel est Pimparfait du subjonctif du verbe icrvre? 
231. Comment fait le present du meme mode &e faire? 232. Quels 
sont les temps que Pon emploie dans le verbe frire, et quel est le 
verbe qui supplee aux temps qui manquent a ce verbe ? 233. Recitez 
Pimparfait de Pindicatif du verbe joindre? 234. Quel est Pimpar- 
fait du subjonctif du verbe lire? 235. Quel est le passe d6fini de 
Pindicatif du verbe luire? 236. R6citez le present de Pindicatif du 
verbe mettre? 237. Quels sont les temps du verbe moudre qui 
s'Spelent de la meme maniere que d'autres temps du verbe mouler? 
238. Comment fait le verbe naitre au passe defini, et qui a-t-il a faire 
remarquer sur ce verbe quand on P emploie avec Pauxiliaire etre, soit 
au present soit au passe ? 239. Recitez le futur du verbe paltre ? 

240. Quel est le participe present et passe du verbe paraltre? 

241. Qu'avez-vous a faire observer sur le verbe peindre? 241 
bis. Quels verbes conjugue-t-on sur le verbe plaire? 242. Dans 
quel cas certains verbes au subjonctif present doublent-ils la con- 
sonne n? 243. Conjuguez le present de Pindicatif du verbe rSsoudre? 
244. Quel est le passe defini du verbe rire, et quel est le signe 
qui fait distinguer le present de Pimparfait du subjonctif? 245. Re- 
citez Pimparfait du subjonctif du verbe rompre? 246. , Quel est 
Pimparfait du subjonctif du verbe suffire, et dans quelle classe 
placez-vous ce verbe ? 247. Recitez le present et Pimparfait du sub- 



N 



GRAMMAR. 



jonetif du verbe suivre? 248. Comment emploie-t-on ordinairement 
le verbe taire en franqais? 249. Conjuguez le present du subjone- 
tif du verbe iraire? 250. Quel est Timparfait du subjonctif du 
verbe vaincre f 

These questions comprise the whole theories on verbs, regular, 
irregular, or defective. 



TWENTY-SECOND LESSON. 

Conjugation of Passive Verbs (79). 

251. There is but one conjugation for passive verbs. It is made 
up of the auxiliary to be, §tre, in all its tenses, and the past par- 
ticiple of verbs conjugated passively. The past participle of an 
active verb agrees always in gender and number with the subject 
or nominative of that verb (64, 776). 



INDICATIVE MODE. 







Present. 


Je suis 


1 aime 


I am 


Tu es 


> ou 


Thou art 


H est 


J aimSe 


He ia 


Nous sommes 


\ aim§s 


We ] 


Vous §tes 


> ou 


You > are 


lis sont 


J aim£es 


They J 
Imperfect. 


«P e'tais 


"| aime" 


7" was 


Tu etais 


> ou 


Thou wast 


H etait 


J aini6e 


He icas 


Nous etions 


1 aimSs 


We ] 


Vous etiez 


> ou 


You Vlcere 


Us £taient 


J aim6es 


They J 




Past Definite. 


Je fus 


*) aime* 


/ teas 


Tu fus 


> ou 


Thou wast 


H fut 


J aimee 


He was 


Nous fumes 


S aimls 


We ) 


Vous f&tes 


> ou 


You > were 


lis furent 


J aimSes 


They J 



- loved. 



loved. 



loved. 







VERB. 




Past Indefinite (84). 


J' ai 


1 Ste aime 


/ have 


Tu as 


> OU 


Thou hast 


11 a 


J aimee 


He has 


Nous avons 


1 ete aimes 


We -\ 


Vous avez 


> ou 


You > have 


lis ont 


J aimees 


They J 




Pluperfect. 


J' avais 


) gte.aime 


/ had 


Tu avais 


> ou 


Thou hadst 


11 avait 


J aimee 


He had 


Nous avions 


\ 6te aimes 


We ] 


Vous aviez 


> ou 


You > had 


lis avaient 


J^ aimSes 


They ) 




Past Anterior. 


J' eus 


1 6te" aime 


I had 


Tu eus 


> ou 


Thou hadst 


11 eut 


J aimee 


He had 


Nous eumes 


S 6te* aime's 


We 1 


Vous eutes 


> ou 


You > had 


lis eurent 


J aimees 


They J 




Future. 


Je serai 


"| aime" 


/ shall 


Tu seras 


> ou 


Thou wilt 


11 sera 


J aim6e 


He will 


Nous serons 


1 aimes 


We shall 


Vous serez 


>■ ou 


You will 


lis seront 


J aimees 


They will 




Future Anterior. 


J* aurai 


1 6te aime 


I shall 


Tu auras 


> ou 


Thou wilt 


11 aura 


J aimee 


He will 


Nous aurons 


S 6te aimes 


We shall 


Vous aurez • 


> ou 


You will 


lis auront 


J aimees 


They will 




CONDITIONAL MODE. 




Present. 


Je ' serais 


| aime 


I shotdd 


Tu serais 


> ou 


Thou wouldst 


11 serait 


) aimee 


He would 


Nous serions 


| aim6s 


We should 


Vous seriez 


>• ou 


You would 


Us seraient 


J aimees 


They would 



95 



been loved. 



been loved. 



■ been loved. 



be loved. 



have been loved. 



■ be loved. 



9* 



96 







GRAMMAR. 










Past. 




J' 


aurais 


| 6te* aime" 


/ 


should 


Tu 


aurais 


> ou 


Thou 


wouldet 


11 


aurait 


\ aimge 


Be 


would 


Nous 


aurions 


\ gte" aimgs 


We 


should 


Vous 


auriez 


> ou 


You 


would 


lis 


auraient 


\ aim6es 


They 


would 



• have been loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Sois aime" ou aimee, 
Sovez 18 I a * m ^ s ou a i m ©es, 



Be (thou) 1 

Let us be > loved. 

Be (ye or you) J 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present. 





' Je 


| sois aime 




' me 






Tu 


y ou 


«0 


thee 




veut que - 


11 

Nous 


\ aimge, etc. 
| soyons aimes 


s ■ 


him 

U8 


■ to be loved. 




Vous 


V ou 


*3 


you 






: us 


\ aimees, etc. 

Future. 




them 






f Je * 


1 sois aime 


-g 


' me 






Tu 


Y OU 


will wa 


thee 




voudra 
que 


11 , 
Nous 


1 aim6e, etc. 
\ soyons aim6s 


him 
us 


■ to be loved. 




Vous 


Y OU 


l5> 


you 






[lis . 


\ aimles, etc. 


* 


them 





Kemark. — E is silent in the feminine form of participles. There- 
fore, aim6, aim6e; par6, par6e, sound the same. Those participles 
are attributes of subjects not complements of to be (27, 459). 



H voulait 

ou voudrait ■ 

que 



II veut ou 
voudra que 





Imperfect. 




Je fusse 


1 aime 


^3 


Tu fusses 


> ou 


11 fut 


J aim6e 




Nous fussions 


\ aimes 


S 


Vous fussiez 


> ou 




lis fussent 


) aimSes 




Past. 




J* aie 


I 6t6 aime 




Tu aies 


> ou 


g 


11 ait 


J aimee 


Nous ayons 


\ Ste" aimSs 


s 


Vous ayez 


> ou 


«3 


lis aient 


J aimees, etc. 





me 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

they 



m e 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

them 



to have been loved, 
or he was wanting 
me to have been 
loved, etc. 



to have loved, or he 
will want me to 
have been loved, 
etc. 



VERB. 



97 



H voulait 

ou Toudrait 

que 



J* eusse 
Tu eusses 
n efit 
Nous eussions 
Vous eussiez 
Us eussent 



Pluperfect. 

6te aime ^ 
ou 
aimee 
6te aimes 

OU {; 

aimees, etc. 



me 

thee 

him 

1(8 

you 
them 



to have been loved, 
or would have 
wanted me to 
have been loved, 
etc. 



Etre aim 6 ou aimSe, 
Etre aimes ou aimees, 



INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. 

X To be loved. 



Past. 



Avoir M aime ou aimee, ) T ^ ft , ^ 
Avoir ete aimes ou aimees, j ' 

PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 



Etant aime ou aimee, 
Etant aimes ou aimees, 



Being loved. 



Past. 
Ay ant ete aim 6 ou aimSe, ) 



Having been loved. 



Ayant e"te aimes ou aimees, 

Remark. — Participles modified by adverbs are generally preceded 
by those adverbs (405), as we may see in the following examples. 

Ex.: 

Je suis bien fatigu£e, I am very tired. 

Nous sommes horriblement trompSs, We are dreadfully deceived. 

Vous etes mal apprises, You are badly brought up. 

Yet, with the reflective voice, we might with emphasis say : nous 
nous sommes tromp6s horriblement. Practice alone can teach the 
proper place of adverbs. 

25*2. To render interrogatively verbs in the passive voice, est-ce 
que? as we have said (167), may be placed before each person of 
verbs. 

Ex.: 

Est-ce que je suis aime* ou aimee? 
Est-ce que vous seriez aime ou aimee? 
Est-ce que nous Stions aimes ou aimees ? 



Am I loved? 
Would you be loved ? 
Were ice loved t 



253* Another mode of interrogation is formed by placing, in simple 
tenses, the nominative pronoun after the auxiliary to be, or, in 
compound tenses, between the auxiliaries to have and to be. 



98 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Suis-je aim£ ou aim6e? Am I loved f 

Ai-je 6t£ aim 6 ou ainiee? Have I been loved? 

Aurions-nous He aimes ou aimSes? Should we have been loved f 

254. The subject and verb in that case must be separated by a 
hyphen (443), as shown in the foregoing examples. 

255. To render negatively verbs in the passive voice, when they 
are in the infinitive, place them (31) between ne, pas; not. 

Ex.: 

N'etre pas aime" ou aimee, Not to be loved; 

or place the two negatives before the verb. 

Ex.: 

Ne pas etre aime" ou aim£e, Not to be loved. 

Ne jamais etre estime" ou estimee, Never to be esteemed. 

256. In simple tenses, place the first negative after the subject 
when verbs are conjugated affirmatively; and the second after the 
verb etre. To have, in compound tenses, must be placed between 
the two negations (154, 155), as shown in the following examples. 

Ex.: 

Je ne suis pas aime ou aim£e, I ajn not loved. 

Je n'&ipas §t& aime ou aimee, I have not been loved. 

Nous n'avons pas 6te aimes ou aimees, We have not been loved. 

25 1 ?. To use passive verbs negatively and interrogatively at the 
same time, place ne before the interrogative form of the verb, with 
pas preceding the participle. 

Ex.: 

Ne suis-je pas aime ou aimee? Am I not loved? 

.iY'ai-je'joa* 6te" aime ou aimee? Have I not been loved? 

N' avons-nous jamais 6te aim£s? Have tee never been loved? 

Remark. — (1.) In simple or compound tenses, participles are 
placed after negatives ; agreeing, always, in gender and number with 
the subject or nominative (64), as shown in the foregoing examples. 

(2.) Adverbs, in the passive voice, are placed before participles 
(390). Adverbs of time may stand either before or after verbs. 

Ex.: 

Je suis arrive" hier, ou hier je suis / arrived yesterday, or yesterday a 
arrive^ arrived. 



VERB. 99 

As indicated for the other conjugations, our resumes on the auxili- 
ary, to be, may be used as ground-work to conjugate any passive 
verb; they maj be conjugated either affirmatively, negatively, or 
both negatively and interrogatively at the same time. 

QUESTIONS. 

251. Combien y a-t-il de conjugaisons de verbes passifs, et comment 
conjugue-t-on ces verbes? 252. Comment rend-on la voix passive 
interrogative? 253. N'y a-t-il pas d'autres manieres? 254. Qui 
a-t-il a remarquer quand on emploie ce dernier mode d'interrogation ? 
255. Comment rend-on negative Faction d'un verbe passif? 256. 
Ou se placent les negations dans les temps simples, et ou se placent- 
elles dans les temps composes ? 257. Comment rendez-vous tout-a-la- 
fois un verbe passif interrogatif et nSgatif, et quelle est la place 
qu'occupent g6n6ralement les adverbes dans la voix passive ? 



TWENTY-THIRD LESSON. 
Conjugation of Neuter or Intransitive Verbs (87). 

258. Neuter or intransitive verbs, in simple tenses (154), re- 
semble perfectly those given in the model verbs contained in the 
foregoing pages. 

259. The compound tenses (155) of neuter verbs are sometimes 
formed with avoir or Ure (715):— with avoir, to have, to mark action 
in the subject, 

Ex.: 

J'ai succ6d£, j'ai r£ussi, / have succeeded (to him), I have succeeded, 

J'avais paru, j'aurais parl£, I had appeared, I would have spoken, 

Nous avons voyagS, We have travelled, 

or with the auxiliary, etre, to be, to mark situation or existence in the 
same subject. 

Ex.: 

Je suis toinbS, I am fallen. 

J'Stais vivant, I was living. 

Nous sommes partis, We are gone. 



100 



GRAMMAR. 



Je suis, / am. 
6tais, / icas. 
Je serai, I will be. 



260* The compound tenses using etre, to be, differ from the 

model verbs in this particular; they replace the tenses of the 

auxiliary, avoir, with corresponding tenses of etre. 

f J'ai, I have, "\ f Je 

Therefore: < J'avais, I had, > are replaced by : < J' 

(j'aurai, I will have, J (^Jc 

Neuter verbs, having no direct objects, cannot be used passively 
(81, 82, 87). When conjugated reflectively (93, 785), their objective 
pronoun is always an indirect object, answering to: a moi, a toi, a lui, 
a elle, a nous, a vous, a eux, a elles (74). In English: to me, to thee, 
to him, to her, to us, to you, to them, etc. 

Ex.: 



Je me suis marche sur le pied, 
Vous yous etes ressouvenu de lui, 
Nous nous sommes imagine cela, 



I trod upon my foot, 
You remembered him, 
We fancied that, 



answering to: J'ai marche sur le pied a moi; vous avez ressouvenu 
lui d vous; nous avons imagine cela d nous; to be being used with 
the meaning of to have (95). 

Remark. — To understand the force of the reflective voice, in 
French, we have only to observe that pronouns of the same persons 
are used in English, to render expressions more emphatic. 

Ex.: 

Je me cms perdu, / thought myself lost. 

Annexed are the intransitive verbs languir, to long, and aller, 
to go, given as model for neuter verbs ; the first conjugated with 
avoir (161), the other with the auxiliary Ure (162). 

See 715 and following for the use of the two auxiliaries. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 







Present. 






Present 


(187). 


Je ■] 




' is I long. 


Je 


vais 


I go. 


Tu 


3 


is Thou longest. 


Tu 


vas 


Thou goest. 


11 


tf 


it He longs. 


n 


va 


He goes. 


Nous 


' a ' 


issons We ""l 


Nous 


allons 


We ) 


Vous 


h3 


issez You Viang. 


Vous 


allez 


You >go. 


ns 




b issent They J 


lis 


vont 


They ) 






Imperfect. 




Imperfect. 


Je 1 




' issais I was 




J' 


allais 


I was 


Tu 


a 


issais Thou wast 


i 


Tu 


allais 


Thou wast 


11 


3: 


issait He was 


n 


allait 


He was 


Nous 


■ C 4 

e5 


issions We ^| 


!* 


Nous 


allions 


We ) 


Vous 


hJ 


issiez You >were 


►S 


Vous 


allies 


You \-wert 


us 




w issaient They ) 




ns 


allaient 


They J 



r* 



VEEB. 



101 



Past Definite. 



Je 1 




r is 


I did 


Tu 


a 


is 


Thou didst 


11 


it 


He I 




Nous 


• a ■ 

a 


Imes 


We 


■did 


Yous 


h3 


Ites 


You 


lis 




k irent 


They 






Past Indefinite. 


J' 


ai 


I have 


Tu 


as 


^ Thou hast 


11 


a 


S) He has 


Nous 


avons 


S w * ) 


Yous 


avez 


■^ You >have 


lis 


ont 

Pli 


They j 
rPERFECT. 


J'- 


avais 


I had 


Tu 


avais 


— Thou hadst 


11 


avait 


3) -He 1 




Nous 


avions 


'S J? 


had 


Yous 


aviez 


• row 




lis 


avaient 


77jey _ 






Past 


Anterior. 


J' 


eus 


J fold 


Tu 


eus 


.- Thou hadst 
So -He 1 


n 


eut 


Nous 


eumes 


3 row ^ 


Yous 


eutes 


lis 


eurent 

F 


Tftey J 
UTURE. 


Je " 




' irai 


I will 


Tu . 


fl 


iras 


Thou shalt 


n 


M 


ira 


He ■ shall 


Nous 


' 3 


irons 


We will 


Yous 


H 


irez 


You shall 


lis 




I iront 


. They sMU 




FUTUR 


e Anterior. 


J' 


aurai 


I will 


Tu 


auras 


.- TTiau shalt 
gj 77<? sftaH 


ri 


aura 


Nous 


aurons 


' g TTe «uK 


Yous 


aurez 


•^ Paw shall 


lis 


au 


ront 


They s 


hall 



Past Definite. 



J' 


allai 


I did 


Tu 


alias 


Thou didst 


11 


alia 


He " 




Nous 


allames 


We 


did 


Yous 


allates 


You 




lis 


allerent 


They J 





Past Indefinite. 

Je suis "} alle 7 am 

Tu es > ou Thou art 

H est J allee He is 

Nous sommes | alles We *) « 

YousStes )■ ou You Vare 

lis sont ) allees They ) 



J' 6tais 
Tu etais 
D 6tait 
Nous etions 
Yous 6tiez 
lis etaient 



Pluperfect. 

alle I was 
ou Thou wast 
allee He was 
alles We ") 
ai You \-weri 
\ allees They J 



Je fus 
Tu fus 
II fut 
Nous fumes 
Yous futes 



Past Anterior. 

allS 7 had 
Thou hadst 

allee He 

alles We 
You 



lis furent J allees They 
Future. 



had 



J' 


irai 




I will 


Tu 


iras 




Thou shalt 


11 


ira 




He shall 


Nous 


irons 




We will 


Yous 


irez 




You shall 


lis 


iront 




They shall 




Future Anterior. 


Je 


serai 


) alio 


I will 


Tu 


seras 


>■ ou 


Thou shalt 


n 


sera 


\ allee 


He shall 


Nous 


serons 


| alles 


We will 


Yous serez 


y ou 


You shall 



Us seront J allees They shall 

( Ian *} ( lang&ge, lent, lanteme, etc. 

Analogous sounds of < guis > are found in < grmtare, guis, guim&uYQ. 
( sant J ( cent, sang, sensible. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 







Present. 






Present. 


Je I 




' irais 7 would 




J' irais 


7 would 


Tu 


3 


irais Thou shouldst 




Tu irais 


Thou shouldst 


11 


fcO 


irait He should 


■! 


11 trait 


He should 


Nous 


" cS ' 


irions We would 


Nous irions 


We would 


Yous 


t-3 


iriez You should 




Yous iriez 


You should 


lis 




Jraient They should 




lis iraient 


They should 



102 



GRAMMAR. 



Past. 



J' aurais 
Tu aurais 
II aurait 
Nous aurions 
Vous auriez 
lis auraient 



I would 
Thou shouldst 
He should 
We would 
You should 
T/iey sJiould 



Past. 

Je serais ^ alle" / would 

Tu serais y ou Thou shouldst 

II serait j alleo He should 

Nous serions | all6s We would 

Vous seriez V ou You should 

lis seraient J .allees They should 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 





(is 




long (tlwu). 




Va 


go (thou ). ^| 


Langu < isson8 


let us long. Allons 


let us go. >( 


(^issez 


long {ye or you). Allez 
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 


go ye or you. J 


Present. 


Present. 


Tlfaut que 


llfaut que 




Je I 




isse 


I ] 




J' aille 


I 


Tu 


2 


isses 


Thou 


§* 


Tu ailles 


Thou 


11 


bC 


isse 


He 


§ 


11 aille 


He 


Nous 


si 


issions 


We 


"•«> 


Nous allions 


We 


Vous 


hJ 


issiez 


You 


s 


Vous alliez 


You 


lis j 




h issent 


They j 


S 


lis aillent 


They 



(134). 



Remark. — The sound of the liquid I of this tense is found in the 
words paille, mitraille, tcaille, bataille, volatile, etc., which may be 
sounded : pa-ye, mitra-ye, 6ca-ye, etc. 



Future. 



Ilfaudra que 



Je 
Tu 

lis 
Nous 
Vous 
lis 



isse 

isses 

isse 

issions 

issiez 

issent 



^ 

K ^ 



Imperfect. 



jjajfjeittj? .hut. 
Ilfallait ou ilfaudrait que 
3 "I fisse ^ 



Je 
Tu 
II 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 



it 

issions 

issiez 

issent 



§ 1 1 

3 

Past. 



me 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

them 



me 
thee 
him 
us 

you 
them 



llfaut ou ilfaudra que 
J' aie 
Tu aies 
II ait 
Nous ayons 
Vous ayez 
lis aient 

Pluperfect. 
Ilfallait ou ilfaudrait que 





'me 
thee 
him 
us 


you 
them 



J' 


eusse 


Tu 


eusses 


11 


eut 


Nous 


eussions 


Vous 


eussiez 


Us 


eussent 



■a 



6Sr 



me 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

them 



Future. 

11 faudra que 

J' aille 

Tu ailles >§ 

II aille s 

Nous allions § 

Vous alliez fc$ 

lis aillent 

Imperfect. 

Ilfallait ou ilfaudrait que 
J' allasse & 

Tu allasses o ^ ^ 

II allat § g ^ 

Nous allassions ^| If 

Vous allassiez j« s § 

lis ailassent § 

Past. 

llfaut ou ilfaudra que 
Je sois 1 alle 
Tu sois v ou 
II soit J allSe 
Nous soyons | alles 
Vous soyez > ou 
lis soient J allies 

Pluperfect. 

Ilfallait ou ilfaudrait que 



£ 


'me 


s 


thee 


f. 


him 




us 


1 

s 


you 


them 



me 
thee 
him 



them 



~ £ 


'me 


*«b 


thee 


Tt is or 
will b 
cessary 


him 

us 

you 


I 


them ^ 



Je fusse 
Tu fusses 

II rat 

Nous fussions'] 
Vous fussiez 
Us fussent 



alle 

allees ^ « ShS5 



me 

thee 

him 

us 

you 

them 



VERB. 103 

INFINITIVE MODE. 



Present. 


Present. 




Languir, to long. 


Aller, 


to go. 


Past. 


Past. 




Avoir langni, to have been longing. 


Etre all6-e, to have gone. 


PARTICIPLES. 




Present. 


Present. 




Languissant, longing. 


Allant, 


going. 


Past. 


Past. 




Langui-e, longed. 


Alle ou all6e, 


gone. 


Compound. 


Compound. 




Ayant langui, having longed. 


Etant all$-e, 


having gone. 



261. Remark. — In neuter verbs, participles employed with 
avoir remain invariable ; those conjugated with etre agree in gender 
and number with the subject of that verb (776, 777). 

Our r6sum6s on regular verbs of the four conjugations must be 
used also with neuter verbs under their different forms. Good 
practice requires these frequent repetitions, which, in our system, 
are intended to replace that practical study of our mother tongue 
commencing on our mother's lap, regulated in the schools, and pro- 
tracted through our existence. With us, practice is to speak or 
write correctly modern languages. * 

QUESTIONS. 
258. Comment sont les verbes neutres dans leurs temps simples ? 
259. Comment sont-ils dans leurs temps composes ? 260. En quoi 
different les conjugaisons de certains verbes neutres d'avec celles 
des verbes actifs ? 261. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur la conju- 
gaison des deux verbes donn6s pour modele de ces conjugaisons ? 



TWENTY-FOURTH LESSON. 

Conjugation of Reflective or Pronominal Verbs. 

26*2. In each of their tenses, reflective verbs (94) take two pro- 
nouns of the same person, the first for subject (64), the other for 
complement (67, 69, 70). Therefore, subjects and complements of 
those verbs are generally the same (64, 67, 1149) thing. 

10 



104 



GRAMMAR. 



263. In simple tenses (154, 155), they conjugate as verbs having 
the same termination or ending in the present infinitive, viz. : 

fist * 



Se tromper ") f chanter, to sing, 

Se r6unir \ are con- J finir, to finish, 

S'apercevoir | jugated on J recevoir, to receive, 

Se niSprendre J [ vendre, to sell, 



( 62 > 3d 
Uth, 



- conjugation. 



264. In compound tenses they take the auxiliary §tre, to be, with 
the meaning of avoir, to have (159), conjugated in the same tenses of 
the four conjugations. 

265. The nominative and objective pronouns are inseparable, 
except when reflective verbs are conjugated interrogatively, or with 
the verb aller, to go, used reflectively with another verb (873). In 
these cases the objective pronoun is the direct object of the second 
verb (782). 

Ex.: 



Me flatte* -je ? 
Me suis-Je flatte ? 
Je vais m'engager. 



Do I flatter myself? 
Have I flattered myself? 
I am going to enlist. 



In the last example the pronoun me is the complement of the 
infinitive engager (69). 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present. 

. Je 
Tu 
II 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 

Remark. — When the objective pronoun of a verb conjugated 
reflectively (784) is an indirect object, the past participle used in 
compound tenses remains invariable in gender and number (777). 

Imperfect. 



me 




e 




te 




es 




se 


- flatt ■ 


e 


Je flatte moi, answering, / 


nous 


ons 


have flattered myself, etc. 


vous 




ez 




S© 




ent 





Je 


me 


Tu 


te 


11 


se 


Nous 


nous 


Vous 


vous 


lis 


se 


Je 


me 


Tu 


te 


11 


se 


Nous 


nous 


Vous 


vous 


lis 


se 



flatt - 



ais 

ais 

ait 

ions 

iez 

aient 



- I was flattering myself, etc. 



Past Definite. 
' ai 



flatt ^ 



ames 

ates 

erent 



/ did flatter myself, etc. 



VERB. 



105 







Past 


Indefinite. 


Je 


me 


suis 


flatte* "] 


Tu 


t'* 


es 


► ou 


11 


8* 


est 


flattie 


Nous 


nous 


sommes ' 


flattes 


Vous 


vous 


Stes 


- ou 


lis 


se 


sont t 


flatties 






Pluperfect. 


Je 


m' 


gtais } flatty 


Tu 


t' 


6tais Y ou 


11 


s' 


§tait 


I flattee 



Nous nous Stions "} flattes 
Vous vous 6tiez > ou 
lis S* §taient J flattees 



J'ai flatte* moi, answering to, 
I have flattered myself. 



I had flattered myself, etc. 









Past Anterior. 




Je 


me 


fus ] flatte" 




Tu 


te 


fus > ou 




11 
Nous 


se 
nous 


fut J flattee 
fumes \ flatted 


■ I had flattered myself, etc. 


Vous 


vous 


futes > ou 




lis 


se 


furent J flattees 
Future. 




Je 


me 


■ 




'erai 




Tu 


te 






eras 




11 


se 




• flatt - 


era 


/ will or shall flatter myself, 


Nous 


nous 






erons 


etc. 


Vous 


vous 






erez 




lis 


se 


- 




eront 








Future Anterio 


R. 


Je 


me 


serai ") flatte 




Tu 


te 


seras > ou 




n 


se 


sera J flattSe 


/ will or shall have flattered 


Nous 


nous 


serons S flattes 


myself, etc. 


Vous 


vous 


serez (• ou 




lis 


se 


se 


ront J 


flattens 





Je 
Tu 

n 

Nous 
Vous 
lis 



me 
te 



nous 
vous 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 



flatt 



erais 

erais 

erait 

erions 

eriez 

eraient 



I would or should flatter my- 
self, etc. 



* The pronouns me, te, se, of the first, second, and third persons, are elided 
before vowels (438). 



106 



GRAMMAR. 



Past. 

Je me serais ") flatte* 

Tu te serais > ou 

II se serait J flattie 

Nous nous serions 1 flattes 

Vous vous seriez > ou 

lis se seraient J flatties 



I would or should have fiaU 
tered myself, etc. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Flatt 



r e-toi(41, 952) 
ons-nous 
ez-vous 



Flatter {thyself). 

Let us flatter ourselves. 

Flatter {ye or yourselves). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present. 



II faut que 



II faudra que 



II fallait ou il 
faudrait que 



H faut ou il 
faudra que 



II fallait ou il 
faudrait que 



r Je 


me 




e 


Tu 


te 




es 


n 

Nous 


se 
nous 


■flatt 


e 

ions 


Vous 


vous 




iez 


[lis 


se 




. ent 




Future. 


r Je 


me 




f e 


Tu 


te 




es 


11 

Nous 


se 
nous 


• flatt - 


e 

ions 


Vous 


vous 




iez 


> Hs 


se 




ent 




Imperfect. 


f Je 


me 




' asse 


Tu 


te 




asses 


11 
Nous 


se 
nous 


flatt - 


at 
assions 


Vous 


vous 




assiez 


. Us 


se , 




assent 




Past. 


fJe 


me sois ^ flatte" 


Tu 


te sois > ou 


11 


se soit J flattee 


Nous 


nous soyons ") flatted 


Vous 


vous soyez > ou 


.Us 


se soient J flatties j 




Pluperfect. 


fJe 


me fusse "} flatte 


Tu 


te fusses > ou 


11 


se fiit J flattee 


Nous 


nous fussions^j flattes 


Vous 


vous fussiez y ou 


ills 


se f 


ussent 


J flatties J 



/ must flatter myself etc. 



It will he necessary for me to 
flatter myself etc. 



It was or would he necessary 
for me to have flattered my- 
self, etc. 



I must have or will have flaU 
tered myself, etc. 



It was or would he necessary 
- that I had flattered myself, 
etc. 



VERB. 107 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present. Past. 

Se flatter, to flatter ourselves. S'etre flatty, to have, etc. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. 

Se flattant, flattering myself. Flatte-e, flattered. 

Compound. 
S'Stant flatt£-e, having flattered, etc. 

Place at each mode, tense, person, and number of our resumes on 
the four conjugations the following reflective verbs : 



S'opiniatrer, 


to persist. 


Se repentir, 


to repent. 


S'estimer, 


to esteem. 


S'emouvoir, 


to feel a sensation. 


S'ecrier, 


to exclaim. 


Se plain dre, 


to complain. 


S'apitoyer, 


to pity. 


Se resoudre, 


to resolve. 



Remark. — S'opiniatrer will be a good exercise on the diphthong ia 
(14), found in fiacre, etc. 
N. B. — The teacher will supply the questions of this lesson. 



TWENTY-FIFTH LESSON. 

Conjugation of Unipersonal Verbs. 

264 bis. Unipersonal verbs (103) are verbs conjugated in the 
third person singular of their tenses. For models of their conjuga- 
tions, they take verbs having the same termination in the present 
infinitive. 

H neige \ ( Chanter, to sing. 

II convient > are conjugated on i Finir, to finish. 

II pleut J ( Recevoir, to receive. 

Some grammarians call them impersonnels ; impersonal verbs. 

Conjugation of the unipersonal verb tonner, to thunder, 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present. 
H tonne, if thunders. 



Imperfect. 
II tonnait, It was thundering. 



Past Indefinite. 
H a tonne, It has thundered. 



10* 



Pluperfect. 
H avait tonn6, It had thundered. 



108 GRAMMAR. 


Past Definite. 


Past Anterior. 


11 tonna, It did thunder. 


11 eut tonng, It had thundered. 


Future. 


Future Anterior. 


11 tonnera, It will thunder. 


11 aura tonne, It will have thundered. 


CONDITIONAL MODE. 


Present. 


Past. 


11 tonnerait, It icould thunder. 


11 aurait tonnS, It would have thun- 



dered, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present and Future. 
II faut qu'il tonne, It must thunder, 

II faudra qu'il tonne, It will have to thunder. 

Past and Future. 
II faut qu'il ait tonn£, It must have thundered. 

II faudra qu'il ait tonn6, It will be necessary that it has, etc. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 



SNT. 




Past. 


to thunder, | Avoir tonne*, 


to have thundered. 


PARTICIPLES. 




2NT. 




Past. 


thundering. 


TonnS, 


thundered. 



Tonner, 



Tonnant, 

Compound. 
Ay ant tonne", having thundered. 

See page 208 for Exercise 20. 

263 bis. Tonner, to thunder, with other unipersonal verbs used in 
a figurative sense, are conjugated in every person of their tenses. 
In such cases they are neuter verbs, adopting indirect objects (87). 

Ex.: 
J'ai tonnS, mais en vain, contre le I have vainly thundered against vice. 

**vice, 
II tonnera contre ce crime, He will fulminate against that crime. 

II tempetera contre eux (438), He will scold them. 

264 ter. Faire, in French, is frequently used with words con- 
nected with atmospheric changes (1026) ; when conjugated uniper- 
sonally, its meaning is generally idiomatical. 

Ex.: 
II fait du vent, il faisait des tonnerres, It blows, it was thundering, 
etc. 
Answering to : II vente, il tonnait, etc. in English. 
Literally : It was making wind, thunder, etc. 



VERB. 109 

QUESTIONS. 
264 bis. Quels sont les verbes appeles unipersonnels? 263 bis. Le 
verbe tonner peut-il etre conjugue dans tous ses temps et dans toutes 
Bes personnes? 264 ter. Quel est le verbe franc, ais que Ton peut 
employer pour remplacer certains verbes unipersonnels, et donnez- 
nous des exemples d'idiomes de ee verbe? 



TWENTY-SIXTH LESSON. 

Participles (765, 773). 

265 bis. Participles, in French, partake of the nature of verbs 
and adjectives; whence their name participles. They partake of 
the nature of verbs, because they have the same signification and 
complement (67, 357). 

Ex.: 

Un homme aimant sa famille, A man loving his family. 

Des enfants aimant Dieu, Children loving God. 

They partake of the nature of adjectives when qualifying nouna 
with which they are connected, agreeing often with them in gender 
and number (773, 776, 777). In such cases they represent state or 
condition in the subject. 
Ex.: 

Un homme aimant, A loving man. 

Une vertu chancelante, A frail virtue. 

266. There are two kinds of participles, present and past. 

267. The present participle adds to the words it qualifies ideaa 
of actions performed by those words. Ending always in ant, it re- 
mains invariable, and is an exception to the facultative rule (354). 

Ex.: 

Un enfant Studiant, des enfants A child studying, children studying. 

etudiant, 
Une femme etudiant, A woman studying. 

268. It is called present, because it refers always to a present 
time, connected with another time (765), either present, past, or 
future. 

Ex.: 
Aimant a lire Thistoire, je lis, jelus, je Loving to read history, I read, I have 
lirai Rollin et Bossnet, read, I -will read Rollin and BoasueU 



110 GRAMMAR. 

269. The past participle, on the contrary, adds to the words it 
qualifies ideas of actions received from those words. Having different 
terminations (251), it is susceptible of agreement in gender and 
number with nouns or pronouns representing them (777). 

Ex.: 

Un enfant aim£, A loved child. 

Des enfants aim&, Loved children. 

Les lemons qu'ils ont apprises, The lessons {which) they have learned. 

Remark. — Past participles may also express situation in the sub- 
ject: 'it is when they answer to the present participle in English 
sentences. In those cases the present participle of etre is dropped in 
French (855). 

Ex.: 

Assise* aupres de sa mSre, labelle enfant Sitting by her mother, the fair child shed 
pleurait a chaudes-larmes, abundant tears. 

270. It is called past, because combined with avoir, to have, 
it always refers to elapsed periods of time (777). 

Ex.: 

J'ai aimg, j'avais aime, j'aurais aim6, 1 have loved, I had loved, I would have 
il faudrait que j'eusse aime, fau- loved, it would be necessary that f 

dra-t-il que j'aie aime? had loved, will it be necessary that 

I had laved ? 

The compound past participle is formed of the present participle 
of the auxiliaries and the past participle of a verb (119). 

Ex.: 

Ayant aim£, £tant aime" ou aimee, having loved, being loved. 



QUESTIONS. 

265 bis. Qu'est-ce que le participe en franc,ais? 266. Combien y 
a-t-il de sortes de participes? 267. Quelle idee ajoute le participe 
present aux mots auxquels il se rapporte? 268. Pourquoi est-il 
appel6 participe present? 269. Qu'est-ce que le participe passS? 
270. Pourquoi le nomme-t-on participe pass6 ? 

Remark. — Simple as they are, the elementary parts of verbs can- 
not be neglected by those seeking seriously a good practical or 
theoretical knowledge of the French tongue. To such learners, 



* Standing for (tant assise prfcs de sa mfcre, etc. 



VERB. Ill 

/ 

therefore, we recommend a perfect mastering of those matters, with 
regard to correctness of sounds or complete understanding of 
meaning, in order to render easy their subsequent labor and insure 
success to their undertaking. 

In that special study we would direct them to associate in their 
minds, as prominent features of those general principles, the con- 
nection existing between pronouns subjects of verbs with the in- 
flexions which such verbs assume in mode, time, person, and vice 
versa. 

In the Present Indicative. 

(e first, 

is second, 

ois, eux third, 
s fourth, 

first. 

Tu, Thou, second person singular... -j " tv°d * 

fourth, 
first. 

II, elle, He, she, ....third person singular.... -j x *. tV°<? " 

Plural of the same tense. \J* fourth. 

Nous, We, first person 1 Tons ~\ 

Vous, You, second " > plural -j ez > 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th. 

lis, elles, Them, ....third " J [ent J 

and so through every mode, tense, and person of verbs. (See P. 208). 

Accordingly, the memorizing of French verbs, any one may per- 
ceive, does not depend on the private study or knowledge of every 
one of those verbs, but consists merely in the easy acquisition of these 
simple principles, reproduced uniformly through the four regular 
conjugations, lost only in a few tenses of some irregular verbs. 
Presented under this simple form, the study of verbs becomes of easy 
access for any one. Mechanical methods may boast of their abun- 
dance of details, or of having given profusely all sorts of verbs digested 
on systems of their own. In so doing they have made the study of 
verbs more complex, or nearly unattainable for learners. 

At this stage of study, the teacher must decide whether to proceed 
with the method, or to protract for some time the practice of our 
preceding exercises. Nevertheless, we may observe that the practice 
of verbs, till we commence the study of syntax, will be maintained 
in our lessons on the other parts of speech. 

* See note, page 70. 



to o 
p fcp 

•^» C8 

s ** 



ft g 

u o 

O OQ 



112 GRAMMAR. 

TWENTY-SEVENTH LESSON. 

Substantives, or Nouns (18). 

271. Substantives are words representing beings or objects exist- 
ing in nature (504): they are used for subjects (64, 303) or comple- 
ments in propositions (453). 

Ex.: 

Terre, ciel, homme, soleil, Earth, shy, man, sun. 

When representing beings realized in our minds, substantives are 
called abstract nouns. Such are : 

EspSrance, m£moire, perfection, Hope, memory, perfection. 

271 bis. Naming the persons or things they represent, substantives 

are also called nouns. 
* 

272. There are two sorts of substantives, or nouns : Proper and 
Common. 

273. Common substantives, or common nouns, are used to name 
or represent every being or thing belonging to the same species. 

Ex.: 

Homme, femme, brebis, livre, etc. Man, woman, ewe, booh, etc. 

274. Proper nouns, or proper substantives, belong to single in- 
dividuals or things. 

Ex.: 

Alexandre, Washington, Paris, New- Alexander, Washington, Paris, New- 
York, Vienne, Valence, ^ York, Vienna, Yalentia. 

275. Any substantive representing a being or object single in 
its species must be considered proper. 

Ex.: 

Dieu, le soleil, la lune, Tunivers, la God, the sun, the moon, the universe, the 
terre, earth. 

276. Amongst common substantives, though in the singular, 
some present to our mind ideas of several persons or things forming 
collections. They are, for that reason, called collective nouns, or 
collective substantives. 



SUBSTANTIVES. 113 

Ex.: 
Troupe, peuple, betail,* quantite, Band, people, cattle, quantity. 

277. Collective nouns are general or partitive (698) collective. 

278. General when representing complete collections. 

Ex.: 
La foule des humain3 est vouee au The crowd of human beings is devoted 
malheur. to misfortune. 

The words la foule des humains represent here the totality of 

men, or the whole of mankind. Therefore, foule, crowd, is a general 

collective. 

Une foule de pauvres recoivent des A crowd of poor men receive aim*. 
secours, 

Une foule de pauvres, in this example, includes merely a portion 
of the poor. Consequently, une foule, a crowd, is a partitive col- 
lective (536). 

L'armtc des Francais, The French army, 

La multitude des etoiles, The multitude of stars, 

representing totalities, or whole classes, are general collective 

noun 

Une foule de so' A troop of soldiers, 

Une multitude d' etoiles, A multitude of stars, 

on the contrary, representing portions of classes, are partitive 
collective nouns. 

279. From these examples, according to the signification attached 
to the substantives, it will he seen that the same words may be 
general or partitive. Preceded by un, une, a, an, collective nouns 
are generally partitive; general, when preceded by the article le, la, 
the. 

2SO. When composed of several words representing a single idea, 
common substantives are called compound substantives. 

Such are : 

Arant-coureur, chef-d'oeuvre, Forerunner, masterpiece. 
Serre-tete, contre-vent, Nightcap, shutter. 

Remark. — The two words are connected by a hyphen (450). 



* For false indications, see Fasquelle's Method, p. 2S6 — 6; Pujol and 
Van Norman, p. 34 — 19. 

10* 



114 GRAMMAR. 

281. Substantives, or nouns, possess two faculties : Gender and 
Number. 

282. Gender is the faculty substantives have to represent the 
difference in sex. Consequently there are two genders. Masculine, 
to represent names of male beings. 

Ex.: 

Le pere, le lion, l'homme, The father, the lion, man. 

Feminine, for names of females. 

Ex.: 

Femme, lionne, fille, Woman, lioness, girl. 

283. Inanimate substantives ought to be without a gender: yet, 
according to an arbitrary law of the French tongue, analogy and 
custom have granted one to inanimate objects. 

Soleil, tableau, livre, etc., Sun, picture, hook, etc., 

are masculine. 

Maison, montre, table, etc., House, watch, table, etc., 

are feminine. 

There is no difficulty about gender, unless with inanimate sub- 
stantives. Practice and dictionaries will teach learners more easily 
and effectually that part of the French tongue than would rules sus- 
ceptible of so many exceptions, or considered impossible by French 
grammarians themselves. 

284. Inanimate substantives are masculine or feminine when 
custom sanctions the use before them of le, la, the, or un, une, a, an 

(318). 

Ex.: 

Le feu, la flamme, Fire, blaze. 

Un chandelier, une chandelle, Candlestick, candle. 

284 bis. We subjoin a list of common substantives most likely 
to be mistaken in their gender. In order that pupils may become 
familiarized with them, they should be used with our resumes on 
verbs given in our preceding lessons. 



SUBSTANTIVES. 



115 



MASCULINE SUBSTANTIVES. 



Abime, 


Abyss. 


Ervsipe'le, 


Erysipelas. 


Accabit (Bon), 


.able (to advan- 


E scalier, 


Sta ircase* 




Accessory. [tage). 


Escompte, 


Discount. • 


Acrostiehe, 


Acrostic. 


Esclandre, 


Braid* 




Age. 




*y» 


-06), 


Air, look. 


Evangile, 




:re, 


Alabaster. 


Eventail, 




. >le, 


Tooth-socket. 


Exorde, 




Am a 


A lore-lace. 




Clove. 


Amadou, 


Jer. 


Hemisphere, 


Hemisphere* 


Amalgame, 


Amalgam. 


Hemistiche, 


Hemistich. 


Ambe, 


Reunion of two 


Hiver, 


Winter. 




number 8, 


Horoscope, 


Horoscope* 


Amiante. 


E.-irth mountain- 


Hospice, 


Hosi 




fax. 


Hotel, 


Ho 


Amidon, 


Starch, 


In dice. 


Indication* 


Achois, 


Anchovy. 


In e cr- 




Angle, 


Angle. 


ime rvalle, 


val. 




Anises* *i 


InTentaire, 


Inventory. 


Anti i 


Antidote. 


.me, 


Isthfnus. 


Antipode, 


Antipode. 


Ivoire, 


Ivory. 


Antimoine, 


Antimony. 


Legume, 


Vegetable: 


Armi~- 


Armistice. 




Manes, shades. 


Arrosoir, 


Watering-pot. 


Monticule, 


Hi! 


Artifice, 


Device. 


Obelisque, 


Obelisk* 


Aste'rique, 


Asterisk. 


Obstacle, 


Obstacle* 


Atome, 


Atom. 


Obus, 


Obus or shell* 


'?} 


1 ice. 


Omnibus, 


Omnibus. 


Autel. 


Altar. 


Ongle, 




Automate, 


'omaton. 


Onguent, 


Ointment* 


Balus: 


Baluster. 




Storm. 


Centime, 


Centime. 


Orchef 


Orchestra* 


rre, 


Cigar. 


Organe, 


Organ. . 


Concombre, 


Cucumber. 


Orifice. 


Open ing. 


Crabe, 


Crab. 


0UTT:1_ 


Work. 


Deeombres, 


Rubbish. 


Panache, 


Plume. 


Eclair, 


Lightning. 


Par;,: 


e pen*, 


Ellebore, 


bore. 




Colored pencil* 


Eloge, 


Eulogium. 


PStale, 


Petal* 


Emetique, 


Em 1 


Pleurs (288), 


Tears* 


EmpL\ 


Plaster. 


Pourpre, 


P> _ 23.se). 


Emr 


eh. 


Rebours, 


t rse* 


Epiderme, 




Renne, 


Reindeer. 


Epilogue, 


JUS. 


Simr. 1 


Medicinal herbs. 








Ulcer* 


Epithalam : 








Equilibre, 


'Ubrium. 


Yivres, 


Provisions, stores. 


Equinoxe, 


iOX. 








FEMIXIXE SI 


'BSTAXTIVES. 




Aire. 


est. 


Ancre. 


Anchor. 


Alarme, 


1 rm. 


Antichambre, 


Antechamber. 


Alcove, 


ess. 


Argile. 


■ 




>'ng. 


Armoire, 


Cupboard. 


mme, 


Anagram. 

1 


1 


est- money. 



116 


GRAMMAR. 




Artere, 


Artery. 


Immondices, 


Dirt. 


Atmosphere, 


Atmosphere. 


In suite, 


Insult. 


Avant-scene, 


Proscenium. 


Nacre, 


Mother-of-pearl. 


Decrottoire, 


Scraper. 


Offre, 


Offer. 


Dinde,^ 


Turkey -hen. 


Omoplate, 


Shoulder-blade. 


Ebene," 


Ebony. 


Once, 


Ounce. 


Ecaille, 


Shell. 


Outre, 


Leathern bottle. 


Ecritoire, 


Inkstand. 


Paroi, 


Side. 


Ecume, 


Foam. 


Patere, 


Peg, patera. 


Enclume, 


Anvil. 


Pedale, 


Pedal. 


Equivoque, 


Pun. 


Sentinelle, 


Sentry, sentinel. 


Fibre, 


Fibre. 


Stalle, 


Stall. 


Horloge, 


Clock. 


Sandaraque, 


Pouch. 


Huile, 


Oil. 


Tenebres, 


Darkness. 


Hypotheque, 


Mortgage. 


Theriaque, 


Treacle. 


Idole, 


Idol. 







Remark. — When used substantively, names of colors are masculine. 

Ex.: 

Le blanc, le rouge, le noir, White, red, black. 

285. Number is the faculty substantives possess to represent 
unity or plurality (33). Consequently there are two numbers: 
singular and plural. 

286. The singular represents single beings or objects. 

Ex.: 

Une femme, un enfant, une plume, la A woman, a child, a pen, the house, the 
maison, la table, table. 

287. The plural, on the contrary, brings to the mind ideas of 
plurality in persons or things. 

Ex.: 

Des femmes, des enfants, les tables, Some women, some children, the tables, 
les plumes, the pens. 

288. Though, generally, substantives possess the faculty of the 
two numbers (33, 285), yet, in French or English, some are used 
only in the singular. 

Ex.: 

La faim, la soif, l'humanite, la pauvre- Hunger, thirst, mankind, poverty , youth, 
te, la jeunesse, la sant6, etc. health, etc. 

Others are always used in the plural in both languages. Such 

are in French: 

Pleurs, ancetres, fungrailles, tenebres, Tears, ancestors, funerals, darkness, 
simples, cabeaux, bestiaux, medicinal herbs, law term for cattle, 

cattle* 



SUBSTANTIVES. 117 

Noce, noces, answering to wedding, are used indifferently in either 
number. 

Ex.: 

J'irai a la noce, ou aux noces de ces I will go to the wedding of those young 
jeunes-gens, people. 

Larme, answering to tear, is used in the two numbers ; contrary 
to pleurs, employed only in the plural. 

Ex.: 

Une grosse larme roulait sur sa joue, A big tear trickled on his or her cheek. 

Remark. — Considered as special products of nature, metals are 
used in the singular. 
L'or est rare, le fer est abondant, Gold is scarce, iron is abundant. 

Where, however, it is desired to designate metals according to the 
place whence they are obtained, the plural form may be used. 

Ex.: 

Les fers de Suede, les plombs The Swedish iron, the Spanish lead, 
d'Espagne, 

or when those substantives refer to special objects. 

Ex.: 

Les fers d'un cheval, les plombs de Horseshoes, the prisons of Venice. 
Yenise, 

This remark applies to every product of nature, when different 
prices or qualities are taken into consideration. Therefore, we say 
in the plural : 

Les cotons de la Louisiane, les cotons Louisiana cotton, Egyptian cotton, 

d'Egypte, les vins de France, les French icines, Italian oils, Russian 

huiles d'ltalie, les bl£s d'Odessa, or American wheat, etc. 
d'Am^rique, etc. 

To Teachers. 

Essential observation on our new mode of exercises on substantives at this 
stage of tuition. 

For the daily practice of giving English substantives to be combined with 
French translations of English resumes, will be substituted that of inserting 
in French resumes substantives given to pupils without indication of gender, 
as suggested in the following lines. By this means their knowledge of gender 
will be tested, and they wili be accustomed to the use of dictionaries. 

The number of these substantives will correspond with each division of our 
French resumes on verbs. Until we begin the study of syntax, as we have 
remarked, those resumes will be our ground for practising simultaneously 
on the other parts of speech. 



118 



Pain, Plume. Beurre, Citron, 

Yin, Ponime, Yerre, Huile, 

Eau, Farine, Bouteille, Figue, 

Couteau, Feuille, Fourchette, Anana, 

Table, Habit, Marbre, Sucre, 

Bois, Linge, Fer, Cafe, 

Pierre, Ciseau, Bas, The 

Maison, Charrette, Chaise, Peau, 

Yoiture, Soulier, Orange, Gilet, 

preceded by the forms of the article le, la, les, the, or un, une, a, an, will be 
added to each of the thirty-six divisions of our resume\ Lesson 2, page 5, con- 
jugated affirmatively, negatively, interrogatively and negatively, as shown 
in the following examples. 

No. 1. J'ai le pain. Je n'ai pas le pain. Ai-je un pain ? X'ai-je pas un 
pain? 

No. 2. lis avaient eu le vin. lis n'avaient pas eu le vin. Avaient-ils 
eu le vin ? N'avaient-ils pas eu le vin ? 

Change these substantives and renew these exercises, till the learners have 
obtained a pretty good knowledge of verbs, with their general principles. 

To maintain practice, the resume of that number, translated into French, 
^ill be orally delivered at the next Recitation, and read on the same copy 
with the French exercise. 

The above general indications may be modified by teachers, according to 
the wants and circumstances of their classes. 

QUESTIONS. 

271. Qu'est-ce que le substantif? 271 bis. Cette partie du discours 
n ? a-t-elle pas un autre nom? 272. Combien y a-t-il d'especes de sub- 
stantifs? 273. Quels sont les substantifs communs? 274. Que re- 
presentent les substantifs propres? 275. Coniment faut-il considerer 
les substantifs seuls de leur espece? 276. Qu'appelle-t-on substantif 
collectif ? 277. Combien y a-t-il d'especes de substantifs colleetifs ? 278. 
Quand est-ce que les no-ms colleetifs sont generaus, et quand sont-ils 
partitifs? 279. Donnez-nous des exemples que les menies mots peu- 
vent etre des noms colleetifs generaux ou partitifs ? 280. Comment 
appelez-vous les substantifs communs composes de plusieurs mots? 
281. Quelles sont les proprietes du substantif? 282. En francais 
combien y a-t-il de genres dans les substantifs? 283. Quel est le 
genre des substantifs inanimes? 284. Quan4 est-ce qu'un substantif 
inanime est de Pun ou de l'autre genre? 284 bis. Citez-nous 
quelques substantifs dont on pourait meconnaitre le genre? 285. 
Qu'est-ce que le nombre dans les substantifs? 286. Que represente 



SUBSTANTIVES. 119 

le singulier? 287. Qu'est represents par le pluriel? 288. Qu'avez- 
vous a faire remarquer sur le nombre de plusieurs substantia, 
tant en francos qu'en anglais? 



TWEXTY-EIGHTH LESSOX. 

Substantives. — Continued. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IX SUBSTANTIVES. 

289. The plural of nouns or substantives, in French as in English, 
is generally formed by adding s to the singular forms, unless in 
cases where inflexions are used for the plural in both languages 
(297, 298).* 

iSx.: 

Un homme, deux hommes, A man, two men. 

Une femme, deux femmes, A woman, two women. 

L'enfant, les enfants, The child, the children. 

L'arbre, les arbres, The tree, the trees. 

La mere, les meres, The mother, the mothers. 

To this general rule there are the following exceptions: 

290. (1.) Do not change in their plural, nouns ending in the 
singular with s, x, or z. 

Ex.: 

Le palais, les palais, The palace, the palaces. 

La voix, les voix, The voice, the voices. • 

Le nez, les nez, The nose, the noses, 

291. (2.) Substantives ending in au or eu take x in the plural 
number. 

Ex.: 

Un tableau, des tableaux, A picture, some pictures. 

Un feu, des feux, Afire, some fires. 

Un etau, des etaux, A vice {screw), vices. 

Landau, a sort of carriage, taking s in the plural, is the only ex- 
ception to this rule. 



* In English: man, men; woman, women; goose, geese; mouse, mice, etc. 
In French : oeil, jeux : ciel, cieux, etc. 

11* 



120 GRAMMAR. 

292. (3.) Among substantives ending in ou, the following take 
x in their plural. 

Ex.: 
Bijoux, cailloux, hiboux, choux, etc. Jewels, pebble*, owls, cabbage, etc. 

which are, bijou, caillou, hibou, chou, in the singular. 

Nevertheless, other substantives in ou, according io general rule, 
add s in the plural. 

Ex.: 

Un clou, des clous; un verrou, des Xail, nails; bolt, bolts. 
verrous, 

293. (4.) Substantives ending in al form their plural in aux. 

Ex.: 

Le mal, les maux, Evil, evils. 

Le cheval, les chevaux, The horse, horses. 

Un hopital, des hdpitaux, A hospital, hospitals. 

According to general rule, the following substantives adding s in 
the plural must be excepted : 

Fatal, Fatal, Chacal, Jaclcal, 

Aval, Endorsement of a note, Regal, A treat, 

Bal, Ball, » Carnaval, Carnival, 

Nopal, Cochineal fig-tree, 

which are in the plural fatals, avals, bats, nopals, chacaHs, f6gals, 
carnavals. 

294. Remarks. — Substantives in ail, instead of aux, add s to 

their plural. 

•Ex.: 
Un portail, des portails, A coach-house door. I 

Un gouvernail, des gouvernails, A rudder, rudders. 

Are excepted bail, email, soupirail, travail, etc., lease, enamel, airJwle, 
work, etc., which are in their plural baux, tmaux, sonpiraux, travaux. 

Yet, when referring to returns of several administrative depart- 
ments, or meaning a machine to shoe vicious horses, travail is spelled 
in the plural with s. 

Ex.: 
Les travails out ete rendus tier, The returns were made yesterday. 

ravails sont deranges, The shoeing-machine is out of order. 

295. Ail, garlic, is ails or aulx. The last form is the only one 
used in practice. 



SUBSTANTIVES. 121 

296. Bitail has no plural.* It is synonymous with Bestiaux 
haying no singular. Both correspond to cattle in English. 

del, ceil, a'ieul, have two plurals. 

I Ciels, skies of landscapes; ciels-de-lit, testers for 
beds; ciels-de-carrieres, first layers of strata in 
quarries, "With the meaning of climate or atmo- 
spherical temperature, it answers to sky. 

Ex.: 
L'ltalie est sous un des plus beaux Italy is situated under one of the finest 
ciels de FEurope, skies of Europe. 

In every other case it is cieux, corresponding to heaven. 

Ex.: 

Les cieux annoncent la gloire de Dieu, Heaven -proclaims God's glory. 

{CEils, in ceils-de-bceuf, oval windows, literally 
ox-eyes, or in any compound substantive begin- 
ning with ceil, eye. (Eils-de-bouc, a kind of shell, 
goafs-eyes; ceils-de-chat, a gem, cats-eyes. 

In all other cases it is yeux. 

Ex.: 

Yeux noirs. yeux vifs, Black ayes, sparkling eyes. 

Les yeux du pain, du fromage, The crumb or. spongy part of bread, 

holes in cheese. 

f Aienls, when meaning grandfathers, from pater- 
j nal or maternal side. 

299, Aieul is -J Ex.: II possede encore ses deux aieuls, he has 

his two grandfathers living. 
\ Aieux, when ancestors are meant. 

300. Remark. — Substantives ending in ant or ent may either 

retain or drop the final t in their plural. 

Custom authorizes us to write: 

Des diamants, des enfants, des apparte- ] 
ments, des presents, 



Des diamans. des enfans, des apparte- 
mens, des presens, 



Diamonds, children, lodgings, 
presents. 



301. Monosyllabic substantives are excepted. They retain always 
t in the plural. 



* See Fasquelle's Method, p. 286 — 6, or Pujol and Van Norman, p. 
34—19. 



GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Dm MBOj Im rm:f. Teetk, glocen, 

* 
?r: des Je/k? f des ^o»j. 

The French Academy maintains uniformly t in substantives end- 
ing in ant or eni. The safest way is to foil _ aide. 

We still maintain with the Academy the use of t in snl 
ending in ant or ent, because, entering into the composition of 
nouns or ad nding in ant or ent, that letter is used in 

feminine or masculine eases, when those are in the singular (354), 
and in the deritaticts of those substantiTes or adject: 

Ex. : 
Un homme savant, des femmes savan- A learned man, some learned women, 

Des j enx enf antms, des manieres en- Children's plays, childlike manner*. 



Rex ark. — Present participles, being invariable words, are not in- 
cluiri in lldfl fafnltatJYC rile." 5 " 

COMFLEXEXTS OF $FB5TANTIYES (534). 

In the expressions : 

Li j'.iirr. 1':z : jz±:-. Le if fir. Glory, opinion, with, 

substantiTes express an incomplete sense or meaning; it is not 
known what is the kind of glory, or desire, which is meant. On the 
eoa&zary, should we Bay: 



Li g'.:irf iif ittitt5. 

I':t:-::z if ;::::i. 
If irfir ie ;liire. 



Tie armies' glory, ear fie ^lory 0/ tie 



(535), Everybody* opinion, or fie o pu i i ipw 

1 be *£i i tfplemmtng, 



Words completing the signification of substantives are 
called complements (67) ; preceded by prepositions, in French, they 
are placed after the word they limit or explain. 

L "- :zizit ::.:i::. Tie man of science, or fie scientific 

Ttinfigr — The complement of a substantive in French may be 
replaced bj adjective m Znglish, as shown in the foregoing 
example. 

* Pujol and Tan Romas, p. 34 — I 



SUBSTANTIVES. 



123 



303. Complements of substantives are formed with the preposi- 
tion de, of, and words depending on that preposition (1184). In the 
preceding examples the words 



Des armees, of the armies, 
De chacun, of everybody, 
De plaire, of pleasing, 



\ are (Glou% 

j complements of 1 jy^t ' 



glory. 

opinion. 

icish or desire. 



304. In eases where possession or relationship is to be expressed, 
complements in French, contrary to English rule, stand always after 
the substantives they determine. 

Ex.: 



La maison de mon pere, 

La voiture du mari de ma tante, 

Le cousin de mon ami, 



3fy father's house. 

My aunt's husband's carriage. 

3Iy cousin's friend. 



This peculiarity of the Saxon idiom, in possessive cases, has no 
correspondent in French. 

For an illustration of the foregoing general rule on the collocation 
or placing of complements, see No. 534. 

To Teachers. 

With indication of gender and number, the following substantives must be 
combined with the resume of our third lesson, or with any other, affirmatively, 
interrogatively, negatively, or interrogatively and negatively at the same 
time: — 



Soldat, 


Croix, 


Bail, 


Faim, 


Ville, 


Bois, 


Port ail, 


Eclair, 


Zero, 


Detail, 


Cheval, 


Horloge, 


Chape au, 


Ciel, 


Clou. 


Nacre, 


Journal, 


Appartement, 


Gateau, 


Cigale, 


Chou, 


(Eil, 


Jaloux.* 


Arrosoir, 




Ev entail, 


Funerailles, 





using the forms of the article le, la, les, the, or un, une, a, an, as indicated 
in our preceding exercise. The translation in French, and recitation of the 
English resume, should be daily repeated as part of our practice, unless replaced 
by special supplements given by teachers. 



QUESTIONS. 

289. Comment forme-t-on le pluriel dans les substantifs? 290. 
Quelle est la premiere exception a cette regie ? 291. Quelle en est 
la deuxieme ? 292. Quelle est la lettre que prennent certains sub- 
stantifs termines en ou, et quels sont ceux qui ne suivent pas cette 

* Jaloux, jalouse, when preceded by the form le, la, les, or un, une, become 
nouns (32S, 330). 



124 GRAMMAR. 

regie? 293. Quelle est la quatrieme exception a la regie gen&rale? 

294. Quelles sont les remarques sur les substantifs terminus en ail ? 

295. Comment emploie-t-on g6neralement ail au pluriel ? 296. Quel 
est le mot synonime de b6tail, et quelle est sa forme plurielle? 
297. Dans quel eas le substantif del suit-il la regie generale ? 298. 
Quel est le pluriel du substantif ceil, et dans quels cas prend-il s dans 
ce nombre ? 299. Dans quel cas aieul prend-il un x au pluriel, et 
dans quel cas suit-il la regie generale ? 300. Quelle est la remarque 
a faire sur les substantifs terminus en ant ou ent ? 301. Quelle est 
F exception a cette regie facultative ? 302. Qu'appelez-vous comple- 
ments des substantifs? 303. Comment formez-vous ces comple- 
ments ? 304. Ces complements occupent-ils la meme place dans les 
deux langues ? 



TWENTY-NINTH LESSON. 
Article (18). 

305. There is a single article in French, having three different 
forms to express gender and number. 

Ex.: 

Le ") ( masculine substantives singular, } „„„ WA ^«„ +,v <* 

la [used with] feminine do. do. [ TSn lish 

Les J I both genders for plural nouns, J S 1 - 

Le merite, la vertu, les talents ont Merit, virtue, talents, always look 
toujours Fair simple et modeste, simple and modest. 

306. Its use is to precede substantives, to show when those words 
have a determinate signification (535). Having no gender of itself, 
it adopts that of the substantives it precedes,* as shown in the 
foregoing example. 

30?. Common substantives are used in a determinate sense — 
definite, in English — when representing a genus, a species, single 
beings or objects (271, 274, 1178 bis, 1186). 

30S. Common substantives represent a genus, when conveying 
ideas of totality, — general sense, in English. 

* See Fasquelle's Method for false definitions of the article, p. 289-1, also 
Pujol and Van Norman, p. 20. 



ARTICLE. 125 

Ex.: 

Les homines ne sont pas mediants, Men are not Kicked. 

Les enfants sont legers, Children are giddy. 

L'honiine devrait s'atcachera regler ses Man ought to try to regulate his pas- 
passions, siona. 

In the last example, man represents the whole of mankind, — viz. : 

a genus. 

309. Common substantives represent species when, conveying to 
th* mind ideas of parts of genera, they form complete collections of 
objects or beings resembling each other, — general sense, in English. 

Ex.: 

Les homines violents sortent souvent Quick-tempered men often overstep 

des bornes de la raison et de la the limits of reason and justice. 

justice, 

Les enfants studieux sont cheris de Studious children are beloved by 

leurs parents et de leurs maitres, their parents and masters. 

L'homme faible se laisse gouverner The weak man is governed by his 

par ses passions, passions. 

Weak man, in the last example, represents only weak men, — a 
species, a class of men. 

310. Common substantives represent single individuals or objects 

tvhen conveying ideas of unity or singleness (-75), — definite sense, 

in English. 

Le tils est cheri du pere, The son is cherished by the father. 

La France est un puissant empire, France is a powerful empire. 
L'homme dont yous parlez est venu, The man of whom you speak is come. 

Proper substantives are used with a determinate signification 
,vhen they bring to mind ideas of comparison between beings or 
)bjects of the past and those of present times, and vice versa. 

Ex.: 

Le Paris d'aujourd'hui est loin de res- The Paris of our days is far from 

sembler au Paris du seizieme resembling that of the sixteenth 

siecle, century. 

r je Xapoleon d'autres fois 6tait d'une The former Napoleon teas of a differ- 

trempe differente que le Xapoleon ent mettle from the Xapoleon of 

de nos jours, our days. 

311. Remark. — Contrary to French rules, in the foregoing 
sxamples we see that the article is not used in English with 
substantives representing genera, kinds, or species, but only in 
:ases referring to particular or special objects (olO), proper nouns 
excepted. 

3152* In French, the forms of the article are liable to two changes, 
—elision and contraction : the gender and number of these forms 
lepend always on substantives used determinately (306). 



126 GRAMMAR. 

313. Elision consists in the suppression or dropping of the 
vowels a, e (437) before words beginning with a vowel or li mute 
(12), to prevent the disagreeable sound produced by the meeting of 
two vowels. An apostrophe ( ' ) in that case replaces the dropped 
vowel (436). It is with elision we write and say: 

L'esprit, l'homme, l'humanite, instead of le esprit, le homme, la humanite, 
the mind, man, mankind. 

In such cases V is called elided article, which may be masculine or 
feminine, according to the gender of the substantive which it pre- 
cedes. 

Ex.: 

I/a'ieul, Pai'eule, The grandfather, the grandmother, 

L'h6te, l'hotesse, The landlord, the landlady. 

In the first parts of these examples, V , being placed before 
masculine singular nouns, answers to the masculine singular form le. 
In the second, V , standing before two feminine substantives, answers 
to la. 

Therefore it is erroneous to say that the article is the same for 
both genders before nouns commencing with a vowel or an h mute.* 

Remark. — The elision of the article never takes place before the 
numeral adjective onze, or its derivative onzibme, nor before the sub- 
stantive ouate, wadding (368.) 

Say without elision: le onze, le onzieme, the eleven, the eleventh; la ouate, the 
wadding. 

314. From the foregoing examples we deduce this invariable rule : 
that, whatever be the change wrought by elision on its masculine or 
feminine form, the article always agrees in gender and number with 
the substantive which it precedes. (See, for exceptions, 532, 521, 
590.) 

315. The contraction is the union or blending of the forms le, 
les, the, of the French article, with one of the prepositions a or de, 
to, of, answering to of the, to the, in English. 

316. These contractions are made to attain rapidity, conciseness, 
nerve, or harmony in speech. 

With contraction we say : 

Au pain, f d le pain, literally f to the bread. 

Aux fruits, ! » J d les fruits, I answering J to the fruits. 

Du pain, J \dele pain, in 1 of the bread. 

Des fruits, J [ de les fruits, J English to [ of the fruits. 

* See Fasquelle's Method, p. 31 — 2 ; or, for the exception to this rule, our 
No. 521. 



answering to 
of the, from the, 
Determinate. 



ARTICLE. 127 

Remark. — The contraction du, for masculine cases, and the 
combination of the form la, the, of the article with the preposition 
de for feminine, or Y, the, before masculine words beginning with a 
vowel or an h mute, are susceptible of two meanings : one determi- 
nate, the other partitive (536). Des is used for the two genders. 

Determinate, when corresponding to de V , de la, of the, from the, 
or any, in English. 

Partitive, when corresponding to quelque, un jpeu; some, few, a 
little, hfEnglish (537). 

La couleur du pain, de Tar- The color of bread, of 
gent, silver. 

Xous venons du jardin, de la We come from the garden, 
rue, from the street. 

Xous parlons du Tent, de la We speak of the icind, of 
pluie, rain. 

f J'ai du pain, de Targent, de I have some bread, some 

answering to \ 7 > B j 

& ror, money, some qold. 

some, A T , . , - j „ T , Jy . u 

p J ai du Tin ou de reau, I have some wine or water. 

1 X Bf I Donnez-nous de la Tiande, Give us some meat. 

317. Contractions do not take place before masculine words com- 
mencing with a vowel or h mute, nor before feminine nouns in the 
singular. In such cases we say with elision (313) : 

A l'eclat, a Fhonneur, 1 * st d f I ^" u * c ^> au honneur, 

De l'eclat, de l'honneur, J ( Du eclat, du honneur, 

To the brightness, to the honor, of the brightness, of the honor. 

318. Remark. — The specifying adjective a, an, in English, is 
replaced by the forms of the numeral adjective un, a, for mascu- 
line cases ; une, a, for feminine singular (360). The difference 
between a, an, and one, cannot be expressed in French, as shown in 
the following. 

Ex.: 

Un homme, une femme, — answering either to — a man, a woman, or one man, 
one \o oman. 

Xone of our French-English grammars has given a good defini- 
tion on the uses of the article. 

To Teachers. 

On the principles mentioned in our preceding pages the following common 

substantives are to be combined with the resume of our Fourth Lesson, 

keeping in mind that, when conjugated without auxiliaries, past participles 

agree in gender and number with substantives, just as adjectiTes would 

bis). 

12 



128 



GRAMMAR. 



Ex. 



Fruit en, maison eue, 


Fruit had, 


house had. 


Fruits eus, 


maisons eues, 


Fruits had, 


houses had. 




ORAL PRACTICE. 




M 6 rite, 


Fils, 


Pain, 


Pierre, 


Vertu, 


Pere, 


Eau, 


Brique, 


Air, 


Mere, 


Pomme, 


Sucre, 


Homme, 


Esprit, 


Farine, 


Cafe, 


Ardeur, 


Humanity, 


Bois, 


Gilet, 


Enfant, 


Raison, 


Feuille, 


Pantalon, 


Femme, 


Reunion, 


Voiture, 


Peau, 


Fruit, 


Eclat, 


Maison, 


Bouteille, 


Borne, 


Honneur, 


Table, 


Corbeille. 



To familiarize learners with our method, we will in all subsequent resumes* 
as in this, indicate the rules to be observed. This practice we shall continue 
throughout the first part of our work till we treat of the French syntax, — 
observing that one indication of a rule will be considered sufficient. 

Written Practice. — 1. He began (106) the lesson. 2. We ate (107) 
bread. 3. He throws (108) a stone. 4. I call (108) a child. 
5. We called a girl. 6. You call a dog. 7. They purchase a 
farm. 8. Let us purchase the house. 9. Call (thou) the mother. 
10. Call (you) the son. 11. To renew a lease. 12. He renews 
the leases (294). 13. We will renew the promise. 14. Renew the 
term. 15. To spell a book. 16. I spell or will spell a word. 17. I 
lead a horse. 18. To lead a mule. 19. We judge the man. 20. Thou 
digestest (107) meat. 21. I have paid for (69) the sugar. 22. Thou 
pay est for (110) the tea. 23. We will pay for the butter. 24. Are 
you hallooing? 25. We were sweeping (111) while you sweep. 
26. You must sweep the house. 27. Thou wilt have to sweep the 
garden. 28. We were coasting France when you were coasting 
Spain. 29. They coasted America while you were coasting Africa. 
30. A created (112) thing, and a thing lost. 

N.B. This is a substitute for the English part of our third r6sum6. 

QUESTIONS. 

305. Combien y a-t-il d' articles en franqais? 306. Quelles sont 
les fonctions de Particle dans cette langue? 307. Dans quel cas le 
substantif commun est-il employe dans un sens determine'? 308. 
Quand les substantifs communs representent-ils un genre? 309. 
Quand, au contraire, representent-ils une especef 310. Dans quel 
cas les substantifs communs representent-ils un individu ou un seul 
objet? 311. L ? article est-il employ6 enfrancais comme en anglais? 



ADJECTIVE. 120 

312. A combien de changements 1'article est-il assujetti en franqais? 

313. Qu'est-ce que V elision? 314. Quelle regie g6nerale peut-on 
deduire des exemples que nous avons donnas? 315. Qu'est-ce que la 
contraction? 316. Pourquoi emploie-t-on la contraction? 317. Dans 
quels cas n'einploie-t-on pas la contraction? 318. Par quel mot 
francais remplace-t-on 1'article indSfini a, an, en anglais ? 



THIRTIETH LESSON. 

Adjective* (18). 



319. Adjectives express qualities in nouns or substantives, and the 
different modes of existence under which those nouns are considered. 

"When we say: 

Homme merchant, Wicked man, ") •,. ,. , , ., 

Enfant studieux, Studious child, I ad J ec ^ ves m s . u ch cases describe or 

Table ronde, Bound table, ) h^t nouns, in adding a quality. 

The words, mechant, studieux, ronde, wicked, studious, round, are 
adjectives, because they express qualities in the substantives man, 
child, table. 

320. In the expressions 

Get habit, This or that coat, "\ 

Mon habit, My coat, > they specify or limit nouns. 

Le premier habit, The first coat, J 

Cet, This or that, ~\ are adjectives, because they express certain 

Mon, My, > modes of existence in the substantive, habit, 

Premier, First, J coat. Viz. : 

Cet habit, that coat, of being under my sight. 

Mon habit, my coat, of being my property. 

Le premier habit, the first coat, of holding rank amongst my coats. 

321. There are two kinds of adjectives: qualifying and determi- 
native. 



* For gender and number, adjectives depend always on the substantives 
which they determine or qualify, just as the forms of the article depend on 
substantives for gender or number. 



130 GRAMMAR. 

Qualifying Adjectives (556 ter). 

3*2*2. To express their quality, qualifying adjectives are added to 

the substantives they limit. 

Ex.: 

Bon, beau, sage, grand, courageux, Good, handsome, wise, great, courageous 

etc. 

323. Having themselves neither gender nor number, they always 
agree (331) in gender and number with the substantives they qualify, 
in order to show a closer connection with those words. 

Ex.: 

L'honime wertmemx est inaccessible aux A virtuous man is inaccessible to low 

petites passions, passions. 

Une fille sensible, modeste, et obiissante, A sensible, modest, obedient girl will be 

sera nne bonne mere et une Spouse a good mother and a virtuous wife. 

vertuense, 

La se trouvent de vastes jardins rem- There are immense gardens fifed icitk 

plis d'arbres toujours verts, de evergreens, odoriferous plants, and 

plantes odoriferantes et de ma- splendid statues. 

gnifiques statues (417). 

324. Among qualifying adjectives, some formed from verbs are 
thence called verbal; viz. : derived from verbs (354). 

Charniant, menagant, obligeant, Charming, threatening, obliging, 

formed from the verbs charmer, menacer, obliger. 

Ex.: 

Des enfants charmants Charming children. 

Des oris menacants, Threatening cries. 

Des personnes obligeantes (301), Obliging people. 

325. In their masculine singular form, those adjectives always 
end in ant. They must not be confounded with present participles 
having the same ending (766). Adjectives in ant always add qualities 

ubstantives, as shown in the preceding examples. Participles in 
ant, on the contrary, instead of qualities, add ideas of actions per- 
formed by subjects (267, 269). Invariable in their form when pre- 
ceded by the preposition en, in, they are called gerunds (77i . 

Ex. : " 
Un enfant lisant, :hild reading. 

Une femme ehantant. A woman singing. 

En ehantant en riant ils passent leur Singing, laughing, so is spent their life. 
vie, 

326. Remark. — Adjectives in ant agree with substantives. Par- 
ticiples in ant, being invariable, cannot be subject to rule (354). 

See Pujol and Van Norman's Grammar, page 34, observation 13. 



ADJECTIVE. 131 

327. When composed of several words forming but one, they 
are called compound adjectives. 

Ex.: * 

Ivre-mort, nouveau-ne, Dead-drunk, neic-born. 

In common with compound words, each part is connected by a 
hyphen (-450). 

32S. Substantives may be used adject ively : in such cases their 
office is to qualify. They do not then represent beings or material 

things (271). 

Ex.: 

II Stait patre, et il devint roi, He icas a shepherd, and became king. 

329. Substantives in such cases take neither article nor determi- 
native adjectives, as: 

Ce, cet, mon, ton, son, etc. This, that, mine, thine, his or her, etc. 

They stand for attributes of subjects (459), expressing a quality 
or mode of existence. 

330. In the same manner, adjectives are used for substantives, — 
when they represent beings or special objects. 

Ex.: 

Les hypocrites. Futile, le necessaire, Hypocrites, the useful, the necessary. 

"When used thus, they are preceded by the article or determinative 
adjectives (358), and stand for subjects (64) in propositions, and being 
assimilated to substantives, are governed by the syntax of that part 
of speech. 

See 393 for another office of adjectives. 

Ex.: 

L'avare, le fou, ce fou, cet avare, ce The avaricious man, the foolish man, 
gueux, that fool, etc. 

331. Adjectives have neither gender nor number. Xevertheless, 
to mark more closely their connection with the substantives they 
qualify or determine, their endings or terminations are variable. 
This is called agreement, as shown in the following. 



Ex.: 



Un hornme prudent, A prudent man. 

Unc ferume prudente, A prudent woman. 

Des femmes prudentes, Prudent tcorjien. 

Des homines prudent*, Prudent men. 

12* 



132 



GRAMMAR. 



Formation of the Feminine of French Adjectives. 

332. To assume a feminine form, every masculine adjective takes 
e mute. 



Ex.: 



Sense, ^ fSensee, Reasonable. 

Grand, > feminine form I Grande, Great or tall. 
Petit, J ( Petite, Little or short. 



The exceptions to this rule are as follows : 

333* (1.) Adjectives ending in the masculine with e mute will 
remain the same in both genders. 

Ex.: 

Honest, amiable, faithful. 



Honnete, aimable, fidele, 
Used adjectively: 



Maitre, 
Pretre, 
Diable, 



aster, ") f* 

nest, > will be i 
evil, ) ( 



If aster, 

Pr 

Devil 



' Maitresse, "} but in their proper office 
Pre'tresse, > these words must be con- 
Diablesse; J sidered as substantives. 



334. (2.) Adjectives ending in 



el 

eil 

ien 

on 

et 



form their feminine in 



J 



elle, 

eille, 

ienne, 

onne, 

ette, 



tel, telle, 
pareil, pareille, 
ancien, ancienne, 
bon, bonne, 
muet, muette, 



Such. 

Equal. 

Old or ancient. 

Good. 

Dumb or mute. 



That is to say, they double their final consonant and take e mute, 
according to general rule (332). Yet 



Complet, concret; 
Discret, secret; 
In quiet, replet; 



- complete, 
discreet, 
unquiet, 



gulate, *] 
ret, V 

iated, J 

they take a grave accent ( N ) (431). 



coagulate, 

secre 

satiatt 



are in the 
feminine 



concrete, 
' discrete, secrete, 
I in quie te, rep lete : 



Void, of no effect. 

Pretty. 

Nice (diminutive for handsome). 

Dunce. 

Old (diminutive for old) (412 W*). 



Paysanne, Countrywoman. 



335. (3.) The adjectives 

Nul (599)1 fNulle, 

Gentil Gentille, 

Bellot Bellotte, 

Sot Sotte, 

Vieillot Vieillotte, 

Paysan V are in the feminine \ 

Bas Basse, Low. 

Gras Grasse, Fat. 

Las Lasse, Tired. 

Epais Epaisse, Thick. 

Gros, etc. J [ Grosse, Big. 

Tiers, the third, is tierce in its feminine form. 

336. (4.) Adjectives ending in f, x, form their feminine in vc 
or se. Such are: 



ADJECTIVE. 



133 



Neuf, 

Heureux 

Jaloux, 



ix, !» 

* J 



feminine form 



f Neuve, 
< Heureuse, 
( Jalouse, 



New. 

Happy. 

Jealous. 



VIZ.: 

rule. 
Yet 



they change f into v, x into s, and take e according to general 



Doux 

Faux 

Prefix 

Roux 

Vieux 



- are in their feminine form 



Douce, 
Fausse, 
Prefixe, 
Rousse, 
[ Vieille, 



Sweet. 

False. 

Prefix. 

Reddish, 

Old. 



Remark. — The last of these adjectives derives its feminine form 
from the masculine vieil, old, used before masculine words beginning 
with a vowel or h mute. 

337. (5.) The adjectives 



Jumeau 

Beau 

Nouveau 

Fou 

Mou 



- are in the feminine - 



f Jumelle, 


Female twin 


Belle, 


Handsome. 


Nouvelle, 


New. 


Folle, 


Crazy. 


[ Molle, 


Soft. 



The .four last, in their other masculine form, are placed before 
words beginning with a vowel or It mute. 



Bel oiseau, nouvel habit, 
Fol amour, mol edredon, 



Fine bird, new coat. 
Foolish love, soft down. 



The following expression is an exception to this rule : 
Le beau ideal, The.acme of beauty. 



338. (6.) The adjectives 

Blanc, franc, sec, frais, ammoniac, pub- 
lic, caduc, turc, grec, long, benin, 
malin, coi, favori, devin, 



White, frank, dry, fresh, ammoniac, 
public, caduque or old, Turk, Greek, 
long, benign, mischievous, quiet, 
favorite, etc., 

are in their feminine form blanche, franche, seche, ammoniaque, pub' 
lique, caduque, turque, gre'cque, longue, be'nigne, maligne, coite, favorite, 
devineresse. 



339. (7.) 

Aigu, Sharp, "J form their feminine by adding e mute surmounted 

Ambigu, Ambiguous, 1 with a diaeresis (..), tr6ma, in French (440). 

Contigu, Contiguous, j Ex.: 

Exigu, Small, J Aigue, ambigiie, contigiie, exigiie. 

340. (8.) Masculine adjectives ending in eur, having two feminine 
forms. 

341. First. Adjectives in eur, formed out of present participles in 
changing ant into eur, ending with euse in feminine cases, such as: 



134 



GRAMMAR. 



Banseur, 

Tron: 

Bail: 

Chasseur, 

Bemandeur, 

Bevineur, 

Pecheur, 

Yendeur, 



Banseuse, 

Trornpeuse, 

Bailk 

Chasseuse, 

Bern an dense, 

Berineuse^ 

Pecheuse, 



Par,. 

Hv 

Gueswer, 

■i i oman, 
Saleswoman, 



will form their feminine in esse, instead of ease, in the following 



acceptations : 

Bailleur, 

Beniandeur, 

B£fendeur, 

Vend. 

Pecheur, 

Chasseur, 

Tengeur, 

342. Second. 

Accusateur, 

Conducteur, 

CrSateur, 

Protecteur, 

Belateur, 

Spoliateur, 



Bailleresse, 

Bemanderesse, 

Befenderesse, 

Yenderesse, 

Peche: 

Chasseresse, 

Yengeresse, 



Lessor. 

Dcmandress. 

Pefendress. 

'.or. 
Sinner. 
Hunter. 
Avenger* 



Law 



Adjectives in tear, forming their feminine : 

Accusatrice, Accuser. 

Conductrice, Conductor. 

Creatrice, Creator. 

Protectrice, Protector. 

Beatrice, Delator. 
Spoliatrice, ator. 



In accordance with this rule we write : 



ExScuteur, 
Inspecteur, 
Inventeur, 
Persecuteur, 



Executrice, 
Inspectrice, 
InYentrisse, 
Persecutrice, 



tor. 
tmfmttnr\ 

Inventor. 
Persecutor. 



343. Third. Adjectives ending in eritur, taking e mute and 
following the general rule, are: 

-ior, 
Superior / 

to which might be added, though differing in their masculine in- 
flexion, 



Extgrieur, 
Superieur, 



Exterieure, 
Sup6rieure, 



Majeur, 
Mineur, 
Meilleur, 

344. Fourth. 

Ambassadeur, ^) 
(xouYerneur, 
Empereur, \ 

Serriteur, 
Fauteur, 



Majeure, 
Mineure, 
Mcilleure, 



which in the feminine 



Major (of l: 
Minor (undt: 
Better. 



Ambassadrice. 
Gouvernante, 
Imperatrice, 
.nte, 

Fam: 



Ambas»adr&8, 

- . . , . - 



* Gouvernante in French, like governess in English, i— I'lfl) tbe lin «f 

an educational charge. Femme de gouverneur is generally used to express 



governor'* i 



ADJECTIVE. 



135 



345. Remark. — Adjectives in eur, expre- fcnntkmi in life, 

or qualit: not change in the feminine. 

S sh adjectives, in general, are substantives nsed adjectively (328). 



Such are 



Amateur, 
Auteur, 

s eur, 

iteur, 
Docteur, 

55eur, 
Agresseur, 



Amateur. 
Author. 
Professor. 
Writer. 
Doctor. 

taaar. 
Aggr- 



Connaisseur, 
Graveur, 
Imprimeur, 
'Buveur, 
Escamoteur, 
d ateur, 
Pein:; 



Connoisseur. 

Engraver. 
Printer. 
Drinker. 
Juggler. 
Designer. 
'ir } etc. 



Ye* the French Academy has adopted for feminine cases: 



Delatrice 
Spolia: 



346. (9.) 



The adjectives 



nam, 

{ Grognon, 

Chatain, 



Witness, 
Growler, 

Chestnut-color, 

ly, 

Aquiline, 



Delator. 
Spoliator. 

are U3ed for both genders. 



J 



not used in the fe- 
minine. 



347. Ert^reen the endings of French adjectives of this class 
and - -ime in English, it must have been observed, there 

is no analogy. In the last language dress answers to drice in the 
former. 



OKAL PI: 

The following adjc ;nder their two forms, ms^culine and 

feminine, are to be added to the 4th resumS. 



Yertueux, 


Joli, 


Avare, 




Petit, 


Tel, 


Hon- 


Belliqueux, 


i ole, 


Mi 


Aimable, 


D leur, 


Modeste, 


Mediant, 


Gras, 


Utile, 


Obeis3ant, 




Xeuf, 


Ha 






Heureux, 


Fidele, 


Mena^ant, 


Charm ant, 


Jal 


util, 




:veau-ne, 


Jumeau, 


Paysan, 


Grand, 


Keligieux, 


eau, 


Boux. 



Add s to them when used with plural persons of verbs ; an addition 
which will be explained when we speak of number in ad; 48 ) . 

Connected with ils, elles, for subjects (64), they must agree in gender 
and number (349 and following). 

Use the same adjectives under their two forms in translating the 

E o g 1 i sh r6 sume . vi 

- .lia vertuew ~ertueuse. 

^ia petite. 



- 



I am. 
I was. 



136 GRAMMAR. 

7ESTI0XS. 

319. Qu>: :e l'adjectif? 320. X'expriment- 

ils pas m _ mbien y a-t-il d'esj c 

d'a 1 

: leurs fonetki -vous a faire remarquer sur leur 

emy. . i.4. Quapt verbaux? 325. Quelle 

leur termina: ~ee quell- - ne faut-il pas les eon- 

fondre? 32ft. A |nel rigne peut-on diifereneier l'adjeetif en ant du 
participe pre- 27. Qu'appelle-t-on adjeetif compose 

Quand le su*:> :mnie adj 29. Qu'avez- 

yous a nous faire remarquer sur mtif employe com me quali- 

fier:: . Peut-on employer les adjectifs com me sul - 

33L Les adjectifs ont-ils en eux-memes un genre et un noml: 

mmeml forme-i-on g£neralement le feminin des adjec:: 
333. Quelle est la premiere exception a cette regie? 334. Quelle en 

n excep- 

: 36. Quell sa remarqi: ' La 

cinquiem 40. Quels b 

adjectifs masculins termirr ^upont deux formes feminir 

341. life en atr font pour le 

feminin. leoonde observation sur les adjectifs 

£ en teur provenant de participes pre- *t la 

forme feminine & f enchanieur? 343. 

344. Quelle en est la quatrieme ? 345. Quelle est la 
remarque a faire -qu'ils repr6- 

sentent un etat on une quali: lement attribute au sexe 

masculin ? 346. Quell r ivieme exception a la regie generate 

sur la formation du feminin d 347. A-t-on 

pu remarquer quelque an: ertains de ces adjectifs et 

leurs correspondants en angl 



THIETT-FIBST LES- 

7 THE PCVSAK OF AnjECTI^ 

34*. Either masculine or feminine, in French, adjectives form 
I lural by takii 

Bon, bonne, bons, bonnes, good. 



ADJECTIVE. 



137 



Invariable for gender and number, in English, though variable 
sometimes in comparisons.* 

Exceptions to this rule. 

349. (1.) Adjectives ending in s, x, are the same in their plural 
masculine form. Such are : 

Gris, epais, heureux, doux, etc., Gray, thick, happy, sweet, etc. 

Ex.: 

Un chapeau gris, des chapeaux gris, A gray hat, gray hats. 

Un nuage epais, des nuages epais, A thick cloud, thick clouds. 

Un homme heureux, des hommes heu- A happy man, happy men. 

reux, 

Un sirop doux, des sirops doux, A sweet syrup, sweet syrups. 

350* (2.) When ending in au, adjectives form their plural 
masculine by the addition of x. 

Beau, jumeau, nouveau, etc., Handsome, twin, new, etc. 

Ex.: 

Handsome speeches. 
Twin-children. 
New books. 



De beaux discours, 
Des enfants jumeaux, 
Des livres nouveaux, 



The feminine forms, belle, jumelle, nouvelle, taking s, follow the 
general rule. 



351, (3.) Adjectives 


ending in al form their plural masculine, 


some in aux, which is the greatest number. 






' Brutal, 


Brutaux, 


Rough. 




Decimal, 


Decimaux, 


Decimal. 




Egal, 


Eg aux, 


Equal. 


Viz. : 


Loyal, 


Loyaux, 


Loyal. 




Moral, 


Moraux, 


Moral. 




Matrimonial, 


Matrimoniaux, 


Matrimonial. 




Musical, 


Musicaux, 


Musical. 


Others, following the general rule, take s. 






' Amical, 


Amicals, 


Friendly. 




Fatal, 


Fatals, 


Fatal. 




Final, 


Finals, 


Final. 


Such are : ■ 


Frugal, 


Frugals, 


Sober. 




Glacial, 


Glacials, 


Glacial, frozen. 




Matinal (908), 


Matinals, 


Early in rising. 




Naval, 


Navals, 


Naval. 



Kemauk. — Adjectives, in English, being invariable words (408), 
completely differ in that respect from the French. 



* Better, finer, handsomer, happier, gladdest, etc. 



138 



GRAMMAR. 



352* Custom allows the endings als, aux, for masculine plural 
forms with the following adjectives : 



Singular. 
Austral, 

Colossal, 
Doctoral, 
Ducal, 
Frugal, 

Natal, 



Plural. 



Australs, 

Colossals, 

Doctorals, 

Ducals, 

Frugals, 

Natals, 



' Austraux, 
Colossaux, 
Doctoraux, 
Ducaux, 
Frugaux, 
Nataux, 



Austral. 

Colossal. 

Doctoral. 

Ducal. 

Sober. 

Native. 



353. The following adjectives ending in al : 



Ben6ficial, 

Canonical, 

Diagonal, 

Diametral, 

Experimental, 

Medicinal, 



Beneficial, 

Canonical, 

Diagonal, 

Diametrical, 

Experimental, 

Medicinal, 



are not used in the plural 
masculine, because they 
always qualify feminine 
substantives. 



Following the general rule, their feminine form requires s. 
Ex.: 



Ligne diagonale, 
Physique experiment ale, 
Des lignes diagonales, etc., 



Diagonal line. 
Experimental philosophy. 
Some diagonal lines. 



354. Adjectives ending in ant or ent, 



{Charmant, 
Prudent, 
Content, 



Charming, 

Prudent, 

Contented, 



may drop or keep the final t in plural Cases. "We may write 
either : 
Ex.: 

Des livres charmans, or des livres charmants, pleasing books. 

Remark. — Among verbal adjectives (324), some change ant into 
if. Such are those formed from the verbs ricrter, instruire, etc. : 
therefore say : 

Ex.: 



Ces romans sont instructifs, 
Cos amusements sont recr6atifs, 
Ces exercices sont progressifs, 



Those are instructive novels, 
Those are recreative amusements, 
Those are progressive exercises / 



avoiding such barbarous language as the following, met with in some 
text-books for learning French, 

Ces romans sont tres-inAeressans et tres-instruisans a la fois,* 

when grammar and good diction require : 

Ces romane sont tres-interessans, et Those novels tare interesting and instruct- 
tiea-instructifs tout-a-la-fois, ive at the same time. 



* Page 115, rule 208-3. Pujol and Van Norman's Method. 



ADJECTIVE. 139 

The monosyllabic adjective lent, slow, retains t in the plural. It is 
the only exception to the facultative rule common with substantives 
having the same ending (301). 

Remark. — Tout, when adjective, must drop t in the plural. 

Ex.: 

Tout homme doit faire son devoir de Evei-y man must do his duty as a 

citoyen, citizen. 

Tou8 les hommes sont lie's pour mourir, Men are born to die. 

Complements of Qualifying Adjectives (1190). 

355. Among qualifying adjectives, some convey a complete 
meaning. 

Ex.: 
Bon) beau, grand, vertueux, Good, handsome, large, virtuous. 

Others require some words to complete their signification. 
( Enclin, Inclined. 

Such are : \ Digne, Worthy. 

( Comparable, etc. Comparable. 

Ex.: 

Un homme enclin au vice, A man inclined to vice. 

Une place digne de vous, A situation worthy of yourself. 

Une fortune comparable d la vdtre, A fortune comparable to yours. 

Soldat propre d eombattre, A soldier fit for fighting. 

Though not using the same prepositions in every c.se, the two 
languages agree in the main principle. 

356. Words completing the signification of adjectives are called 

their complements (67, 581). 

357. Complements are formed of prepositions connecting words 
dependent on adjectives. 

f au vice, to vice, 

In the preceding examples, \ ^e, . jfft, 

[a eombattre, for fighting, 

are the complements of the adjectives 

Enclin, digne, Inclined, worthy, 

Comparable, propre, Comparable, fit (1193). 

For analogy in complements, see Nos. 302, 303 for substantives, 
388, 389 for pronouns. Combine with our 5th resume the following 
adjectives used in the two numbers, agreeing in gender and number 
with the pronoun subject. 

13 



140 




GRAMMAR. 






ORAL PRACTICE. 




Bon, 


Jalouse, 


Loyal, 


Folle, 


Beau, 


Nouveau, 


Paysanne, 


Fiddle, 


Vieille, 


Grasse, 


Amical, 


Egal, 


Heureux, 


Brutal, 


Frugal, 


M tenant, 


Douce, 


Gentille, 


Grosse, 


Molle, 


Fausse, 


Belotte, 


Avare, 


Coupable. 


Jumeau, 


Moral, 


Matin al, 





These exercises are susceptible of affirmation, interrogation, etc. 

Now and then use them under their different forms, 

Ex.: 

Je serais belle. Je ne serais pas belle. Serais-je belle ? Ne serais-je pas 
belle? 

Written Practice.- -1. Gray (349) horses. 2. Big (349) books. 3. 
Sweet (336) apples. 4. Twin (337) brothers. 5. New (350) handker- 
chiefs. 6. Twin (337, 348) sisters. 7. Old (349, 336) books. 8. Fine 
(337) coats. 9. Decimal (351) systems. 10. Amicable (351) con- 
nections. 11. Frugal (332, 351) men. 12. Boys of a (351) size. 13. 
Moral (351) principles. 14. Naval (351) works. 15. Women equal 
(334, 348) in talent. 16. Frozen (351) mornings. 17. Matrimonial 
(351) ties. 18. Austral (352) regions. 19. Doctoral (352) precepts. 
20. Virginal (353) looks. 21. Vocal (353) musics. 22. Charming (354) 
looks. 23. Slow (354, 348) motions. 24. He is good and she is (332, 
334) good, too. 25. She will be (336) virtuous. 26. He is inclined 
(355) to fear. 27. Fit (355) to work. 28. A horse comparable (355) 
to mine. 29. A fine (337, 350) coat, and two fine coats. 30. A thick 
(335) smoke. 31. Frugal (332) women. 

This is only to suggest the practice to be adopted in such cases. 

QUESTIONS. 

348. Comment forme-t-on g6neralement le pluriel dans les adjec- 
tifs ? 349. Quelle est la premiere exception a cette regie ? 350. 
Quels sont les adjectifs qui forment leur pluriel en prenantx? 
351. Quels sont les adjectifs en al qui forment leur pluriel en aux, 
et quels sont ceux qui suivent la regie g6nerale ? 352. Quels sont 
ceux de ces adjectifs qui s'emploient sous les deux formes? 353. 
Quels sont ceux qui ne s'emploient pas au pluriel masculin ? dites- 
nous la cause de cela ? 354. Quelle est la remarque sur les adjectifs 
termines en ant et ent? 355. Les adjectifs expriment-ils toujours 
un sens complet ? 356. Comment appelle-t-on les mots qui comple- 
tent la signification des adjectifs? 357. Comment se forment les 
complements ? 



ADJECTIVE. 



141 



THIRTY-SECOND LESSOX. 

Determinative Adjectives (583). 

358. To express certain modes of their existence, or to determine 
their signification by means of ideas added to them, determinative ad- 
jectives are joined to common substantives. Like the article, those 
adjectives agree in gender and number with the substantives they 
precede. 

See 368 for exception. 



When we say: 

Ma maison, 
Cette plume, 
Notre pere, 



My house, ^ 

That pen, \ 

Our father f J 



here they limit nouns. 



an idea of 



possession, 
indication, 
relation or connection. 



Ma, my, attaches to the substantive 

maisou, house, 
Cette, this or that, conveys to the word 

plume, pen, 
Notre, our, to the substantive pere, 

father, 

With the ideas of possession, indication, and relation combined, 
those expressions cause my mind to see in the objects they represent, 
— viz.: sl particular house, pen, and father. 

Ma, my, causes maison, house, to mean only the house I possess. 
Cette, this or that, points to the pen I designate. 

Notre, our, preceding pere, father, determines unequivocally a common 
relationship. 

Therefore, maison, plume, pere, expressing determinate or special 
objects, must have determinate meanings or significations (306), — 
limited } or definite, in English. 

358 bis. In this particular consists the difference between the de- 
terminate article and determinative adjectives. The first indicates 
simply when common substantives are used in a determinate signi- 
fication;* the latter at once determine those substantives. 



* Fasquelle's Method, p. 2S9-1, Pujol and Van Norman, p. 28, give 
erroneous definitions on the use of the article. 



142 GRAMMAR. 

In this phrase or sentence : 

Le livre dont vous parlez est The book you are speaking of is interest' 
interessant, ing, 

the signification of the word livre, book, is determined by the 
words do?it vous me parlez (306). Omit that complement, and nobody 
can tell what book is meant ; the words le livre have an incomplete 
meaning. On the contrary, in this sentence : 

Ce livre est interessant, This book is interesting, 

the signification of the substantive is determined by ce, this. 
By means of that word, without others to complete its signification, 
my mind contemplates a particular book, the book shown me. 

359, There are four kinds of determinative adjectives: numeral, 
demonstrative, possessive, indefinite. 



Numeral Adjectives. 

360. Numeral adjectives determine the signification of substan- 
tives, adding to them ideas of number or order. 

See, for table of those adjectives, p. 188. 

Ex.: 

Un homme, une femme, One man, one woman. 

Un premier Stage, un second etage, A first floor, a second fioar. 

There are two kinds of numeral adjectives: cardinal and ordinal. 

361. Numeral cardinal adjectives express number. 

Ex.: 

Un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six, One, two, three, four, five, six, twenty, 
vingt, cent, mille, etc. one hundred, one thousand, etc. 

They are invariable for gender or number, with the exception of 
un, une, one, variable in gender, as shown in our first example; and 
vingt, cent, twenty, one hundred, in some cases variable for number, 
as will be shown in its proper place (584). 

Used determinatively, preceded by the form of the article, they 
follow the syntax of substantives. 

Ex.: 

Vos chiffres sont mal faits : les un sont Your figures are badly shaped : your 

trop inclines, et les trois et les ones are too much inclined, and 

cinq se confondent mutuellement your threes and fives may be mis- 

(590), taken one for the other. 



ADJECTIVE. 143 

362. Numeral ordinal adjectives mark order or rank: they agree 
in gender and number with the substantives they determine : 

Ex.: 

Le premier fruit, les premiers fruits, The first fruit, the first fruits. 

La premiere fleur, les premieres fleurs, The first flower, the first flowers. 



Demonstrative Adjectives. 

363. Demonstrative adjectives determine the signification of sub- 
stantives, adding to them ideas of indication. They always agree 
with the words which they determine and precede. 

Masculine «jpgular forms, Ce, cet, This, that. 
Feminine singular form, - Cette, This, that. 
Plural form for both genders, Ces, These, those. 

364. Remarks. — (1.) Ce, this, that, is used before nouns begin- 
ning with a consonant (7) or h aspirate (963). 

Ex.: 

Ce livre, ce hameau, That book, this hamlet. 

364 bis. (2.) Cet, this, that, is used before nouns beginning with 
a vowel or h mute. 

Ex.: 

Cet homme, cet enfant, Tliat man, that child. 

365* (3.) Ces, these, those, is used before substantives either mas- 
culine or feminine. 

Ex.: 

Ces hommes, ces femmes, ces amies, Those men, those women, these JemaU 

friends. 

365 bis. (4.) When the difference between this or that has to be 
expressed in French, the adverbs ci, la, here, there, are placed after 
nouns. ^ 

Ex.: 

Je n'ai pas ce chapeau-ci, j'ai ce / have not this hat, I have that hat. 

ehapeau-la, 

The substantive and adverb, in such cases, are connected by a 
hyphen (446). 

13* 



/ 



144 GRAMMAR. 



Possz5sive Adjectives. 

366. P - determine or 1:: :antives, adding 

: :heir signification ideas of possession or ownership. They call to 
mind the idea of the possessor and that of the ot; —ssed, the 

direct and indirect objec: 

Ex.: 

J'ai mon chapean, answering to: J'ai le I have my hat, or the hat mire, 
chapeau d moi, 

In this example, le chapeau is the direct object of the trail- 
verb avoir, to hate (161). 

Possessive adjectives agree generally in number, pers gender 

with the nouns they determine or limit (368). We subjoin a table of 
them: 

Masculine form. Feminine. 
1st person singular 

Men. Ma. 

2d. Ton, Ta, 

3d, Bob, Sa, 

Notre, 
2d. Yotre, Votoe, 

3d, Lenr, Lear, 

Mom chapeaa, ma jnment, met bles, Le chapeau d moi, la jnment & mot, 

answering : : : ^es bles & moi. 

Son pere, ta mere, tea scenrs, Le pere d lui on d eUe, la mere d Ini 

on & die, etc. 

Aotre chapeau, notre canne, not hardes, Le chapeaa d nout, 1a canne d moms, 

etc. 

In the above examples, the possessive adjectives molly ton, son, 
answer to, a moi, d toi, dlui,deUe (74) ; tome, to thee, to him, 
to her, etc., in Engl: 

367. Contrary to the pEn^KA -—: 

agree with the substan:: y determine: viz.: with the 

objects possessed. Therefore, speaking of a woman's hat, we say 
with the masculine form : 

Son chapeau, Her aof. 

In this example, the masculine form, in French, answers to the 
feminine in English. 

368. Before feminine substantives beginning with a vowel or h 
mute, 



iers for 


I nouarrearle for nnmber 


Plural. 


- 


He* 


Ml 1st ' 






T\y. 2d 


« 


Ses. 


His or her, 3d 


c 


>~05, 


Oar, ' 14 






} •:?.?-, 2d 


«• 


Lenrs, 


I^ir, 3d 





ADJECTIVE. 145 



the adjectives {£? K 1 — ^S^ | ^ Z. 

^son, >m, J (^ sa, her. 

The ear requires this euphonical change- 

Ex.: 
Mon ame, *) f ma ame, My soul. 

Ton humeur, > standing for -j ta humeur, Thy humor. 

Son epee, J ( sa ep§e, His sword. 

Except from this rule the following expressions: ma onzieme 
ann6e, la ouate (313). 

This rule applies also to qualifying adjectives preceding feminine 
nouns, or adjectives having but one form commencing with a vowel 
or h mute. 

Ex.: 

Son aveugle mere, son aveugle pere, His or her blind mother, his or her blind 

father. 
Son aimable fille, His or her amiable daughter. 

Son indomptable valeur, His or her indomitable valor. 

Eemark. — Whenever the compound words madame, mademoiselle, 
are used determinately, viz.: preceded by the form of the article, 
or when limited by qualifying or determinative adjectives, they drop 
the possessive ma, my. Therefore say: 

La dame, la bonne dame, ces belles demoiselles, etc., and avoid 
such expressions as: 

La madame, la belle mademoiselle, cette bonne madame. 

The compound, monsieur, is not subject to this rule (1187 bis). 

369. As will be seen from foregoing examples, possessive ad- 
jectives precede the nouns they determine, agreeing with them in 
gender and number, except with rule 368. 

Indefinite Adjectives. 

370. Indefinite adjectives determine the signification of substan- 
tives, adding to them ideas of generality. Such are: 

4 



Chaque, 


Every, each. 


Plusieurs, 


Several, many. 


Nul, 


None, no. 


Autre, 


Other. 


Aucun, 


Not any. 


Tel, 


Such. 


Meme, 


Even. 


Quel, 


What, which. 


Tout, 


Every. 


Quelconque, 


Whatever. 


Quelque, 


Some, any. 







Ex. : 

Aucun 61$ve ne sortira, None of the pupils will come out. 

Plusieurs soldats seront punis, Several soldiers will be punished. 

Nul $es coupablcs n'echappera, None of the guilty shall escape. 



146 



GRAMMAR. 



1 without substantives (387), they become indefinite pronouns. 

The following substantives, preceded by numeral cardinal or 
ordinal adjectives, from one, Jirst, to eighteen, eighteenth, are to be 
combined with our .inie on verba. 

Ex.: 

J'ai une maison. j'ai la premiere maison, etc 

The same : be also used with the remaining part 

of the same resum£, connected with demonstrative or possessive 
adje freeing in gender, number, e: 

Ex.: 

Nous avons en son jardin, ils araient en ses jardins, etc 





1 PRACTICE. 




Maison, 

Coutean, 

Chapeau, 

Homme, 
al, 
Jardin, 


Gluing 

Tscle. 


Zpee. 
Hi:::. 
Gilet, 

Montre. 



se substantives may be replaced by others at the option of the 

learner. 



SUPPLEMENTARY IXEECI5I. 

rten Practice. — L My iirrse, my house, and my friend (366). 
2. That boy is interesting. 3. That girl is bad. ■£. A man and a 
woman. 5. The first and hundredth page. 6. That man is si 
Th; ung. & ^&s that woman happy. 9. Those 

children, are yon this or that sugar? 11. Bid 

you take this or that umbrella ? 12. My hat is new. 13. Her dress 
is old. 14. His cloak is mended. 15. Our house is sold. 16. 'Spur 
father is old. 17. Our fields are extensi-rr I - My sword is rusty. 
19. Your soul is pure - man must work. ZL Sreral 

children die. .- Every man shall fight. 23. Her boots are lost 
-4 Hmk men and women sing welL 25. This hotel is large. 26. 
That house :- l" I: is the tenth chapter. 28. Thy sheep are 

lost. 29. Her children are sick. 30. Xo man is perfect. 



PRONOUNS. . 147 

QUESTIONS. 

358. Quelle est la fonction des adjectifs de* terminatifs ? 358 bis. En 
quoi consiste la difference entre Particle determine* et cette espece d^ ad- 
jectifs? 359. Combien y a-iril de sortes d'adjectifs determinatifs? 360. 
A quoi servent les adjectifs nurneraux, et combien y en a-t-il de sortes ? 
361. Qu'expriment les adjectifs nurneraux cardinaux? 362. Que mar- 
quent les adjectifs nurneraux ordinaux? 363. Quel est Femploi des ad- 
jectifs denionstratifs? 364. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on ce? 364 bis. 
Devant quels mots emploie-t-on cet? 365. Qu' emploie-t-on pour le 
pluriel des deux genres? 365 bis. Quels mots emploie-t-on en fran- 
<jais pour marquer la difference entre this, that, en anglais? 366. 
Quelles sont les fonctions des adjectifs possessifs? 367. Qui a-t-il a 
remarquer sur ces adjectifs dans leurs rapports avec les substantifs? 
368. Ces adjectifs s'accordent-ils toujours en genre avec les substan- 
tifs qu'ils precedent? 369. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur leur 
emploi ? 370. Quel usage fait-on des adjectifs indefinis ? 



THIRTY-THIRD LESSON. 

Pronouns (18). 

371. Pronouns are words put in the place of substantives (271, 
610), or nouns, to recall their idea or to avoid tedious repetitions. 

Telemaque etait reste seul avec Mentor : Telemachus remained alone with Men~ 
Telemaque embrassait ses genoux, tor: Telemachus embraced Men- 

car Telemaque n'osait embrasser tor's knees, because Telemachus 

Mentor autrement, ni regarder did not dare embrace Mentor 

Mentor, ni meme parler a Mentor. otherwise, nor look at Mentor, nor 

even speak to Mentor. 

Using the pronouns il, le, lui, him, with elegance and conciseness 
we will say: "Telemaque etait reste* seul avec Mentor: il embrassait 
ses genoux, car il n'osait Z ? embrasser autrement, ni le regarder, ni 
meme lui parler." 

Pronouns are used for subjects and objects of verbs (64, 68, 69). 

3*72. Pronouns are used also to represent the part each person or 
thing performs in speech (34). That part is what grammarians call 
person, — from the Latin persona, person, or character, in English. 



148 . GRAMMAR. 

There are three persons: 

The first is the speaker. Je parle, I speak, I do speak, etc 

The second, the person spoken to. Tu paries, Thou speakest. 

The third, the person spoken of. II parle, He speaks. 

The first has priority over the second and third ; the second, over 
the third, which is subordinate to the others. When we say : 

Je lis, I read, the pronoun je, I, being the first person, has priority 
over the second. 

Tu lis, thou readiest, tu, thou, is of the second person, having 
command over the third. 

II lit, he reads, the pronoun il or elle, lie, she, being of the third 
person, is subordinate to the first and second. On, answering to 
tee, thzy, people, is a pronoun of the third person singular (386). 

Ex.: 

II lit, celui-ci parle, l'autre Studie ; on He reads, this one speaks, the other 
lit, on parle, studies ; we read, etc. 

In this example, il, celui-ci, Vautre, are pronouns of the third 
person, subordinate to the second and first. 

3*73. There are five kinds of pronouns : personal, demonstrative, 
possessive, relative, and indefinite. 

Personal Pronouns (620). 

374. These pronouns have received the name of personal, because 
more than any other pronouns they seem particularly to represent 
the three persons. 

Personal pronouns are : 

Singular. 
1st person. Je, me, moi, I, me. 

2d do. Tu, to, toi, Thou, thee. 

3d do. II, elle, lui, le, la, leur, se, He, him, she, him, their, it, to it, of it, 
soi, en, j, of this, of that. 

Plural. 
1st person. Nous (633), We. 

2d do. Yous, You. 

3d do. lis, elles, eux, les, leurs, They, them, to them, of them, of these, 
se, soi, en, j, que, etc. 

375. Remarks. — (1.) Le, la, les, him, her, it, them, when used as. 
pronouns, are always connected with verbs, as shown in the following 
examples : they represent direct objects (69). 

Ex.: 

Je le vois, / see him. 

Je la connais, / know her. 

Je les recois, recois-fe*, / receive them, receive them. 



PRONOUNS. . 149 

Like the forms of the article, these pronouns in the singular are 
subject to elision. 

Ex.: 

Je Taime, nous Phonorons, / love him or her, we esteem him or her. 

The forms le, la, les, the, of the determinate article, on the con- 
trary, always precede substantives (306). 

Ex.: 

Le roi, les rois, The king, the kings. 

La reine, les reines, The queen, the queens. 

Le prince, les princes, The prince, the princes. 

376. (2.) Pronouns of the third person, in French, are used for 
animate or inanimate things. Speaking of a man or a bridge, of a 
woman or a river, we will say : 

Ex. : 

Je le vois (Thomme), I see him (the man). 

Je le vois (le pont), I see it (the bridge). 

Nous la voyons (la femme), We see her (the woman). 

Nous la voyons (la riviere), We see it (the river). 

Pronouns objects of verbs stand generally before verbs, in French 
(623), contrary to English syntax. 

377. (3.) The personal pronouns : 

Lui, se, soi, en, y, to him, to her, to it, of him, of her, of 

this, of that, etc., 

not being declinable, are used for persons or things ; en, y, for per- 
sons, being sometimes preferable to a lui, a elle, de lux, d'elle, etc. 

Ex.: 

De ce monsieur il n'en est pas question, Not a word is spoken of that gentleman. 

D'elle, on n'en parle pas, It is no question of her. 

Quant a eux, nous y songeons peu, As for them, they are out of our minds. 

(4.) En, y, personal pronouns, are used for persons by the most 
prominent French writers, in spite of their proscription in some 
unintelligent Methods.* 

Ex.: 

Malgre leur puissance, les rois sont soumis a Dieu et en dependent. 
Celui qui ne pense qu'a lui-meme dispense les autres &'y penser. 
Tous les hommefi donnent facilement un conseil, mais il y en a peu qui veulent 
en recevoir. 

In the above sentences, should we replace the pronouns en, y, by 
& ltd, de lui, d'eux, we would diminish their conciseness, grace, and 
clearness. 

* Fasquelle's Method, p. 317-19, and Pujol and Van Norman, p. 56-101. 



150 GRAMMAR. 

On this we must remark that our Anglo-Franco grammarians 
have completely misunderstood the ease, giving as a ride of grammar 
what is merely a precept of politeness. Pronouns indirect objects, en, 
y % a luL a elle, de lui, d'eiu-. though perfectly grammatical, 

ght to be avoided in presence or hearing of those to whom we 
desire to pay respect. Therefore, in presence of such persons, instead 
• j'y penst. ^ d'elle, d'eux, d J elles, 

etc.. say. in the second or third person, je parte a monsieur, je pensais 
a madame ou a mademoiselle, or je parte de monsieur, de madame, de 
mademoiselle, avoiding such disrespectful though grammatical ex- 
pressions as, jeparle de lui, je pense d eUe, etc. 

3*S. Declinable only for number, leur, their, is used for both 
genders (594). Speaking of both men and countries, we say : 

Leu - ore, et leurs habitudes Their life is sober, they possess moral 

habits (men). 
Leur climat est doux, et leurs produits Their climate is mild, and their pro - 
Mnf v | r duce varied ( countries ). 

In these examples, leur, answers to their, of them. On account of 
the preposition de is an indirect olyecx: leur vie answering 

to la vie d'eux, their life, or the life of them (74), where la vie stands 

for direc: 

DeXOXSTKAHVB PftOSOUNS (640). 
379. Demonstrative pronouns recall to mind substantives, adding 
to them ideas of indication or demonstration. 

5:>gvlar famn. 

elui, eUe, this, that. 

Plural Masculine. Plural Feminine. 

Ces. M these, those. 

When the difference between this or that is to be marked in French, 
the adverbs ci, Id, are placed after the pronouns celui, celle, ceux, 
celles (365 bis), as indicated for substantives. 

Ex.: 

I celui -ci ou celle Have you this or that t 

:x-ci et ceux We shall have these and those. 

Vous aurez celles-ci ou tdk You will have these or those. 

. cela, are used when pointing to objects: they refer, the first 
to the nearest, the last to the most remote. 
Ex.: 
:nei-moi ceci, rendei-moi cela, Give me this, return me that. 



PRONOUNS. 



151 



REMARK.-^Vhen the same words are used with reference to what 
is said, ceci applies to what follows, cela to what precedes. £a, that, 
is sometimes used as a contraction of cela (433). 

350. Remark. — Ce, demonstrative pronoun, must not be con- 
founded with ce, demonstrative adjective. The first is always con- 
nected with the verb to be, etre, or followed by the relative pronouns 
que, qui, quoi, dont, that, which, what, whom, whose, etc. 

Ex.: 

Ce sont les Romains, It is the Romans. 

Ce qui plait, What pleases. 

Ce dont je parle, The thing I am speaking of. 

Ce a quoi je pense, The thing I think of. 

The other, as we have seen (364), precedes nouns or substantives 
used determinately (358). 
Ex.: * 

Ce savant, ce livre, ces tables, That scholar, this book, those tables. 

Possessive Pronouns (653). 

351. Possessive pronouns recall substantives, adding to them 
ideas of possession or ownership : they take the gender, person, and 
number of the substantives which they represent. 



Person. 
1st. 
2d. 
3d. 



1st, 
2d. 
3d. 



Singular Masculine. Sing. Feminine. 



Le mien, 
Le tien, 
Le sien, 



La mienne, 
La tienne, 
La sienne, 



Mine. 
Thuxe. 
His, her, its. 



Plural Masculine. Plur. Feminine. 



1st. 
2d. 
3d. 



Les miens, 
Les tiens, 
Les siens, 

Masculine. 
Le notre, 
Le votre, 
Le leur, 



Les miennes, 
Les tiennes, 
Les siennes, 



Mine. 
Thine. 
His, her, its. 



Invariable 

for 
number 

in 
English. 



Feminine Sing. 
La notre, Ours. 
La votre, Yours. 
La leur, Theirs. 



Masculine and Feminine Pl. 
Les notres, Ours. 

Les votres, Yours. 

Les leurs, Theirs. 



382. Remark. — Possessive pronouns, in French, are always pre- 
ceded by the forms of the determinate article le, la, les, the, which 
are integral parts of them, their signification being determinate. 
They take also the circumflex accent on 6 (434), in notre, votre, to 
distinguish them from possessive adjectives (366). When used ab- 
solutely, they follow the syntax of substantives (654). 

Ex.r 

It is our men, not yours, who have done 
it. 



Ce sont les nStres et non les vStres qui 
ont fait cela. 



14 



152 



GRAMMAR. 



Relative Pronouns (655). 
383. On account of their close connection with preceding sub- 
stantives or pronouns, the following words have received the denomi- 
nation of relative pronouns. 

Who, whose, which (for persons), 

which, that (for things). 
Whom, whose, to whom, to which, etc. 



What, which, of whom, of which, etc. 



Singular Masculine, qui, que, quoi, 

lequel, ou, auquel, duquel, dont, 
Singular Feminine, laquelle, a la- 

quelle, etc., 
Plural Masculine, qui, que, les- 

quels, etc., 
Plural Feminine, qui, que, lesquelles, 

etc. 

Ex.: 

La seule chose qui nous reste, The only thing that is left us. 

Le seul espoir que nous ayons, Our only remaining hope. 

Le but ou je tends, The object I intend to attain. 

In the last example oil is an indirect object, answering to auquel, 
to which. 

Ex.: 
Lequel des deux freres est malade ? Which of the two brothers is sick f 

Duquel des chapeaux parlez-vous ? Which of the two hats are you speak' 

ijig of? 
Ce sont les enfants dont nous parlons, They are the children of whom we speak. 

384. We see from these examples, that, when used as indirect 
objects, relative pronouns combine with prepositions like other 
pronouns (74). 

Ex.: 



C'est vous ct qui je parle, 
C'est de vous que Ton parlait, 
C'est d'eux que nous parlions, 



It is you to whom J speak. 

It is of you they were speaking. 

It is of them we used to speak. 



385. Whether substantive or pronoun, the preceding word with 
which the relative pronoun is connected is called the antecedent of 
the relative. Pronouns always agree with their antecedent in gen- 
der, person, and number. 

' II ya des personnes qui aiment 
leslivres comme les meubles, 
Les richesses que nous recher- 
chons avec tant d'emprcsse- 
ment sont fragiles, 
L'homme de merite n'est pas 
celui dont on parle le plus, 



In these 
sentences, 



Some people are fond of books 
as they are of furniture, 

The riches we seek bo greedily 
are perishable, 



Worthy men are not always the 
most popular, 



Personne 
Richesses 
Celui 



}' 



is the antecedent 



f f** ) 

of < que > 
( dont J 



in the 



first example, 
second do. 
third do. 



Remark. — Qui ? 



a qui? 



de qui ? whom f to whom f of whom ? 



PRONOUNS. 153 

though used without any apparent antecedent, are very properly 

called relative pronouns. 

Qui parle? a qui parlez-yous? de qui Who speaks? to whom do you speak* 
parle-t-on ? of ichom do they speak ? 

are elliptical expressions for: qui est la personne qui parle? de 
quelle personne parle-t-on? etc. Conciseness and clearness are 
attained by such expressions. 

Indefinite Pronouns. 
386. Indefinite pronouns indicate vaguely persons or things 
whose ideas they recall in our mind (1217). 

On, quiconque, quelqu'un, chacun, We, they, whoever, some one, each 
chacune, Tautre, Tun F autre, Tune other, one and the other, both, 

l'autre, les uns les autres, autrui, others, of others, nobody, 

personne, 

are indefinite pronouns when used absolutely, that is to say, not 

preceding nouns, as some may in practice. 

On dit, on vient, on patine, on danse, It is said, they come, they are skating, 

they dance. 
Respectez le bien d'autrui, Respect other people' s property. 

Personne ne l'a fait. Nobody has done it. 

3S7. Remark. — Xul, certain, plusieurs, tel, no, none, several, 
such, etc., indefinite adjectives (370), are indefinite pronouns when 
used without substantives. 

Ex.: 

Aucun n'a repondu, None have answered. 

Xul n'est de mon avis, Nobody is of my opinion. 

Plusieur3 pen sent que oui, Several think it is so. 

Qui le dit se trompe, Whoever says so deceives himself 

Complements of Pronouns. 
3SS. Like substantives or adjectives (303, 357), pronouns may 
require complements, or words completing their signification. 

389. Complements of pronouns are composed of the preposi- 
tion de, of, joined to some words depending on the meaning of the 
phrase. In the following examples : 

J'admire les poetes anglais et ceux de I admire English poets and those of 
la France, France, or I admire English and 

French poets, 
Chaeun de vous a tort (988), Each or both are wrong, 

La crainte de contrarier et celle de The fear of conti-adicting people, and 
deplaire sont naturelles, that of displeasing them, are 

natural, 
De la France "] ( ceux, 

De vous > are complements of the pronouns < chacun, 

De dtplaire ) \ celle. 



154 GRAMMAR. 

R£suni6s of the preceding rules, condensed in the following exer- 
cise, may be given to senior pupils as subjects for composition. 
These rules may also be combined with our resumed on verbs. 

RESUME OF THE THIRTY-THIRD LESSOX. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

1. Comprends-tu ce livre ? 2. Je me prom£nerai et lui restera a 
la maison. 3. Savez-vous votre lecon? Je ne la sais pas. 4. Me 
comprenez-vous ? Oui, monsieur, je vous comprends. 5. Ce couteau 
est le tien. Oui, je le sais. 6. La riviere est devant vous. Oui, je la 
vois. 7. Cette maison est fort gra'nde; je 1'acheterai. 8. Cette dame 
parle tr&s-bas; je ne l'entend pas. 9. Connaissez-vous cet homme, et 
lui avez-vous parle ? 10. Yous aimez votre pere et votre mere, me 
dites-vous, et vous leur causez du chagrin. 11. L'egoiste veut tout 
pour lui. 12. Ces jeunes enfants se trompent. 13. Cette maison se 
fait vieille. 14. Songiez-vous a votre sceur ? J'y songeais quand 
vous etes rentre. 15. Ces hommes sont instruits, leur memoire est 
active et excellente. 16. Ce parapluie de soie est vieux, mais 
l'onibrelle de satin de votre sceur est neuve. 17. Ces femmes-ci 
sont fatiguees, mais celles-la ne le sont pas. 18. Ce sont des hommes 
et non des femmes que vous voyez. 19. Ce dont vous parlez est faux, 
j'en suis certain. 20. Ce qui fatigue d£plait. 21. Ce ehapeau-la est 
difforme, mais celui-ci ne Fest pas. 22. Votre cravate est sale, et 
la mienne ne Test pas. 23. Ce pauvre cheval est boiteux. le mien 
est borgne. et le sien est aveugle. 24. Ce sont les tiens et non les 
miens 'que je demande. 25. Lequel des deux malades dont vous 
me parlez est mort la unit derniere ? 26. Ce dont nous parlous ne 
vous concerne pas. 27. Que nous demandez-vous, monsieur? Xous ne 
vous comprenons pas. 28. C'est de nous et non de vous que Fon 
rit. 29. C'est a vous. ma ehere fille, que je donne cette jolie fleur. 
30. Quiconque le dit nient impudemment, je vous l'assure. 31. Xul 
ne pourra soutenir une calomnie aussi infame. 32. Faites a autrui ee 
que vous voudriez qu'on lit a vous-meme. 33, L'un et Tautre se con- 
soleront. 34. Xul homme n'est exempt de peehe dans ee monde. 
35. Aucun ne viendra vous voir, ne l'esperez pas. 

Remark. — Our resumes on verbs may be employed with demon- 
strative adjectives, adverbs, etc. 

Ex.: 
J'ai ce chapeau. J'aime ce brave homme. Aimerons-nous cette liqueur ? etc. 



PRONOUNS. 155 

Ox the Same. 

Written Practice. — The figures indicate the parts of the method 
where are to be found the words or remarks to be observed. 

1. They will go away while we stay at home. 2. "We will be tired 
of waiting for him (375). 3. That carriage begins to grow old (377). 
4. This house is on your right hand: do you not see it, sir (376)? 5. 
That lady will paint a landscape (178) : do you recognize her, madam? 
6. That general stands at the head of his army (368) : sow may see 
him in the midst of his staff. 7. That actress is on the stage : I hear 
her voice and see her face. 8. Do you see that wooden bridge (303), 
with those two stone houses? 9. Did you ever see the ocean? Yes, 
sir: I have seen it. 10. That little girl lost her shoe in the mud. 11. 
Did you see the Mediterranean at Genoa or Naples? No, miss: I saw 
it at Toulon in France. 12. Whoever does so works only for him- 
self (387). 13. Everybody in this family thinks of himself. 14. 
Their fortune may be considerable, but their wants are still greater. 
15. This book is mine, that is theirs, those are yours. 16. These 
men and women are sent to France. 17. It was the Spaniards who 
conquered the Mexican empire (383). 18. What pleases is virtue. 
19. The thing I am thinking of is not within my reach. 20. That book 
is mine, not yours (382). 21. Your cousin wants her hat, my brother 
wants his. 22. Who will go with me? Will you, sir (167)? 23. Must 
I apply to you, madam (180)? 24. It is of you both that they were 
speaking. 25. Some people are fond of science, as others are of amuse- 
ments. 26. Rich men are not those whom we seek: generally they are 
good only for themselves (374). 27. Whoever is industrious will pros- 
per (387). 28. Each man is his own arbitrator. 29. Several were caught 
running away. 30. Nobody has done it, I suppose. 31. Each (388) of 
them was sick. 32. None of the soldiers have answered the call 
(370). 33. Nobody is willing to come. 34. Judge not others by your- 
self. 35. Both were sick and died in the hospital. 

Continue such exercises till the pupil is familiar with the rules to 
be observed. 

Conjugate affirmatively, negatively, etc., with the pronouns direct 
objects le, la, les, answering to him or it, her or it, them, the verb 
voir, to see. 

Present Indicative. 

Je le ~\ ( him or it. Je ne le ") f him or it. 

Je la > vois, / see < her or it. Je ne la > vois pas, / do not see < her or it, 
Je les j ( them. Je ne les J ( them. 

14* 



156 GRAMMAR. 



1st Person. 

■p. fjele ") fie ") (him or it? Ne le ) vois-je 

Vvois-je? Bo I see I her or it ? Ne la [ pas? 
I them ? Ke les J etc. 

2d Person. 



que 



fjele } fie ) 

< je la > vois? or < la >i 
(je les J I les J 



Le 1 (le ) 

La > vois-tu? or Est-ce que tu -Ha > vois ? Do you see him, her, or them t 

Les J lies) 

i 

In the same manner conjugate with the pronoun indirect object 
en, de cela, of it; en, de lui, d'elle, of him t of her, etc., 

En donner, en prendre, en chercher, en voidoir, etc. 

With the pronoun y, a lui, a elle, k eux, to him, to her, to them, 
to it, 

Ysonger, y comprendre, etc., or, reflectively, s y y faire, s'y accouhimer, 
s'y entendre. * 

En, y, pronouns, must not be confounded with en, y, adverbs (397). 

To a practical teacher this offers a wide field for practice. 

QUESTIONS. 

371. Quelles sont les fonctions des pronoms? 372. Les pronoms 
n'ont-ils pas d'autres emplois? 373. Combien y a-t-il de sortes de 
pronoms? 374. Quels sont les pronoms personnels, et pourquoi sont 
ils ainsi nomm6s? 375. Que faut-il remarquer sur Temploi des 
pronoms le, la, les, et commeat les distingue-t-on des formes de 
Particle? 376. Comment emploie-t-on les pronoms de la troisieme 
personne? 377. Est-ce que tous les pronoms sont d£clinables? 378. 
Comment emploie-t-on leurf 379. Quels sont les pronoms demon- 
stratifs? 380. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur le pronom cef 381. 
Quelle est la fonction des pronoms possessifs, et quels sont-ils? 382. 
Quel est le trait particulier de ces pronoms? 383. Quels sont les 
pronoms relatifs? 384. Dans quel cas ces pronoms sont-ils prec£d£s 
d'une preposition? 385. Qu'appelle-t-on antecedent? 386. Quels 
sont les pronoms indefinis? 387. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur 
ces pronoms? 388. Les pronoms ont-ils des complements? 389. 
Comment se composent ces complements? 



ADVERB. 157 



THIRTY-FOURTH LESSON. 
INVARIABLE WORDS. 

Adverb (19). 

390. Adverbs are invariable words added to verbs, adjectives, or 
adverbs to modify their signification (19, 322). They form degrees 
in comparison (407) when combined with other adverbs or with 

adjectives. 

Ex.: 

Elle chante agreablement, She sings agreeably. 

II est tres-studieux, He is very studious. 

II parle bien eloquemment, He speaks very eloquently. 

Plus sage qu'instruit, More wise than learned, 

391. Generally adverbs have a complete signification. In mean- 
ing they correspond to prepositions having a complement (413). 

Ex.: 

Virre tranquillement, To live quietly, 

Marcher lentement, To walk slowly, 

Etre trop riche, To be too rich, 

are phrases of a complete sense. 

Consequently, adverbs do not require complements (802), as do pre- 
positions (413). 

392. Nevertheless, a few of them are to be excepted : 

Conformement, anterieurement, conformably, anteriorly, etc., re- 
quire the complement of the adjective from which they are derived 
(832). 

Ex.: 

Conformement ct la loi, Conformably to law. 

Anterieurement au deluge, Anterior to the flood. 

Posterieurement d la famine, Posterior to famine. 

393. Adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs: — when they 
modify verbs (330) or limit their signification. (568). 

Ex.: 

Chanter juste, voir clair, crier fort, To sing in tune, to tee plainly, to screech 

aloud. 



158 GRAMMAR. 

394* Used as adverbs, adjectives become invariable; that is, they 
lose the faculties of gender and number, as shown in the foregoing 
examples. This rule applies also to past participles (568). 

395. The following adverbs : 



Combien, 


How much, how many. 


Trop, 


Too much, too many, 


Beaucoup, 


Much, many. 


Assez, 


Enough, 


Peu, 


Little, few, 


Guere, 


But little, but few, 


Pas, 


Not — ne preceding pas, 



are always followed by the preposition de, of. When preceding 
nouns, or when those nouns are qualified by adjectives or limited by 
possessive adjectives, the same preposition connects those adverbs 
with pronouns. 

With verbs in the infinitive, they take the preposition d. 

Ex.: 

Combien avez-vous eP argent sur vous? How much money have you in your 

pocket f 
Vous avez trop de bon vouloir, You possess too much good will. 

Nous avons assez de lui et d'elle, We have enough of him and her. 

Elle a beaucoup d craindre <Teux, She has much to fear from them. 

396. Remark. — Should those adverbs be followed by past par- 
ticiples, they drop the preposition de (257), and take them as direct 
complements. 

Ex.: 

lis ont beaucoup perdu, They have lost much. 

Elle a assez gagne, She has gained enough. 

II n'a guere profits, He has gained but little. 

Bien, very, is employed with nouns adjectives or adverbs; tr$s, 
very, is never used before nouns. The first does not require a hyphen, 
the last does. 

J'ai bien faim, / am very hungry. 

II fait bien chaud, bien froid, It is very warm, very cold. 

Elle est tres-attentive, tres-assidue, She is very attentive, very steady. 

II est tres-agr6ablement log6, He is very agreeably lodged. 

Adverbs modifying adverbs always precede the adverbs which they 
modify. 



ADVERB. 



159 



It is said in French or English, 

Je parle tr&s-hien, 
Vous ecrivez assez correctement, 
Vous vous portez passablement bien, 
Vous marchez plus lentement, 



/ speak very well. 

You write pretty correctly. 

Your health is tolerably well or good. 

You walk more slowly. 



See Fasquelle's Method, for confusion of adverbs with substantives and 
adjectives, p. 107-3. Ex.: Vous avez assez de livres. Cet en/ant est assez 
attentif. 

LIST OF ADVERBS MOST IN USE IN FRENCH. 



Ailleurs, 


Elsewhere. 


Guere, 


Little, few. 


Alentour, 


Thereabout. 


Hier n 


Yesterday. 


Alors, 


Then. 


Ici, 


Here. 


Assez, 


Enough. 


Jadis, 


Once, of yore. 


Aujourd'hui, 


To-day. 


Jamais (403), 


Ever or never. 


Auparavant, 


Before. 


La, y, 


There. 


Aupres, 


Near. 


Loin, 


Far, yonder. 


Aussi, 


Also. 


Maintenant, 


Now, actually. 


Aussitot, 


As soon. 


Meme, 


Even. 


Autant, 


As much. 


Mieux (400), 


Better. 


Autrefois, 


Formerly. 


Moins, 


Less. 


Autrement, 


Otherwise. 


Ne, 


Not or no (821). 


Beaucoup, 


Much, a great deal. 


Ou (432), 


Where. 


Bien (398), 


Well. 


Partout, 


Everywhere. 


Bientot, 


Soon. 


Pas, 


Not. 


Combien, 


How much.* 


Point (815), 


Not. 


Comment, 


How. 


Peu, quelque, 


Few, little. 


Davantage, 


More, some more. 


Plus (400), 


More. 


Dedans, 


Inside. 


Plutot, plus t6ty 


Bather, sooner 


Dehors, 


Outside. 




(805) 


Deja, 


Already. 


Presque, 


Almost. 


Demain, 


To-morrow. 


Quand (4X3), 


When. 


Desormais, 


Hereafter. 


Quelque (604), 


Whatever. 


Defcsous, 


Under. 


Souvent, 


Often. 


Dessus, 


Above. 


Tant, 


So much. 


Dorenavant, 


For the future. 


Tantot, 


By-and-by. 


Encore, 


Yet. 


Tard, 


Late. 


Enfin, 


At last. 


Toujours, 


Always. 


Ensemble, 


Together. 


Tout, 


All. 


Ensuite, 


Afterwards. 


Tres (447), 


Very. 


Fort, 


Very. 


Trop, 


Too much. 



To this list may be added a great number of adverbs ending in 
ment, formed out of adjectives, which practice and the use of dic- 
tionaries will teach better than we could do it ourselves. 



* How many, with things susceptible of numbering : how many men, etc. 



:h are the following : 

-tirement, Attentively. BiiiUwwl, Actively. 

Bran iemez:. Greatly. - ::-z-:::, Simply. 

Heureusement, Happily. " Solemiellementefr. Solemnly . 

e take the acute accent on « ; 

Are i g Blindly. I Conformement, Conformably. 

m modement. Corn mod iously. I n : : :_ . l: :- l : Z" ; pmh >. . etc. 

39?. Remarks. — The adverb en, de la,yro» Acre, must not be 
confounded with en, de cela, de lui, d'eux, of hint, of her f of it, of 
them, pronoun of the third person (377). 

-.: ronoun is an indirect object, representing persons or things; 

en adverb modifies verbs, an£ refers to places only. 

Ex.; 

Je m'en vais. oh je Tais de 12, I go away, or from there. 

Allez-Tous a Paris ? j'en retonrne, Are yon going to Paris f I return from 

Acre. 



ronoun, a lui, a elle, a eux, a cela, to him, to her, to them, to it, 
: ■ ■ : be confounded with y adverb, answering to there (938). 

Je wviens £e Lr-ndres : allez-j. / return from London; go there yonrmelf. 

Youe parlez de New-York : j avez-T<ras To* mpeak of New York : hare yon been 

there? 
Aimer votre pere, et soyex y Bemuds, Lowe your father, and obey him. 

39 S. Placed between two verbs, bien requires for complement a 
verb in the infinitive preceded by the preposition de. As we have 
remarked, it is used before substantives instead of tret (396). 

Vons avei bien fait de manger, Yon 1 1 ■ i i ■ t ~\: : . :: >~ :. 

Us ont bien fait de renir, They home been right to come. 

Yam a~ez "r.ie:: fiiif me partir, T: ■ ':.:.-■ :••-. -.';•.: :; ::. 

The same word, when meaning much, takes the preposition d be- 
flpe infinitives. 

Ex.: 
II j anrait bien d dire centre Tons, Jfve* augi* &e aaitf against yon. 

399. Standing before* plural nouns, preceded by the contracted 
m des (536), ©£c» has a partitive meaning, answering to the words 
tome, many, muck, in English. 



ADVERB. 161 

Ex.: 

Je tous donnerai bien des louanges, et I will bestow on you many praises, and 
vous ferai en meme temps bien blame you much at the same time. 

des reproches, 

400. The adverbs: 

Mieux, Better. ] The two adverbs moins, plus, are used in connection with 
Moins, Less. > qualities or quantities expressed by an indeterminate 

Plus, More. J substantive. Ex. : plus de vertu, etc. 

AYhen standing in comparisons, they take the forms of the article 
le, la, les, the (548). 

Always in such cases a substantive is understood. 

Ex.: 

Vos deux freres sont les plus applaudis, Tour two brothers are the most praised. 

The substantive freres, brothers, understood in the French sentence, 
might be placed after the article les, the, which announces that 
plural substantive. 

Yos deux fr&res sont les (fr&res) les plus applaudis. 

Placed before infinitives, those adverbs require the preposition d 
or de. 

Ex.: 

Moins d faire, plus d dire, mieux de Less to do, more to say, better to sell, 
vendre, 

In affirmative or interrogative sentences, on account of its par- 
titive meaning, quelque chose, something, requires also the preposi- 
tion de before adjectives (538). In such cases, no preposition is re- 
quired in English. 

Ex.: 

Avons-nous quelque chose de bon ? Have we something good? 

Sait-elle quelque chose de mal? Does she know something bad? 

Votre ami a quelque chose d'agr£able Your friend ha* something agreeabU 
qui le fait aimer de tous, which endears him to everybody. 

401. Rien, nothing, not any thing, rejects the article (547), as 

negative words requiring the preposition de always do when used 

indeterminately. 

Us n'ont rien de bon, They have nothing good. 

Yous n'avez rien de mauvais, You have nothing bad. 

402. Quelque chose, something, 
Rien, nothing (925), 



162 GRAMMAR. 

when placed before verbs in the infinitive, take the preposition &, 
answering to to. 

Ex.: 

Nous n'avons rien d manger, We have nothing to eat. 

Avez-vous quelque chose d dire? Have you any thing to say? 

Nous avons quelque chose d dire et We have something to say and nothing 
rien d faire, to do. 

403. In affirmative sentences, jamais always answers to ever in 
English. 

Ex.: 

Aviez-vous jamais eu des difficulty Did you ever have any trouble with 
avec ces gens-la? those people? 

Eeponse : Jamais. Answer : Never. 

In the above example, the answer jamais is an implicit propo- 
sition having a negative meaning (486), corresponding to: 

Jamais je n'en ai eu, / never had any. 

404. Preceded or followed by negations, jamais becomes nega- 
tive, answering to never, in English. 

Ex.: 

N 'avez-vous jamais 6te malade ? Have you never been sick ? 

Jamais n'avez-vous €te heureux ? Have you never been happy ? 

Nous n'avons jamais mieux dormi, We never slept better. 

405. According to general rule, always place adverbs as near as 
possible to verbs (884), or complements of words after their ante- 
cedent (302), in French. 

Say with grammatical correctness: 

Ex.: 

Combien avez-vous d' argent ? How much money have you f 

Combien avez-vous de poires? How many pears have you? 

Quel age a votre fils ? etc. How old is your son ? etc. 

and avoid such constructions as the following, forbidden by grammar 
and good practice (1182): 

Combien de poires avez-vous? 

Combien de francs avez-vous, monsieur? 

Quel age votre fils a-t-il ? etc. See Fasquelle's Method, p. 492. 

Adverbs modifying participles must always precede them. 



ADVERB. 



16S 



Ex.: 

Je n'ai rien fait ni rieu dit, 
Cela est bien dit et mal fait, 
II a admirablement bien parle, 



/ have neither done nor said any thing. 
That is well said and badly done. 
He has spoken admirably. 



Adverbs of time must be placed next to verbs, either before or 
after them. 

Ek.: 
Ce matin j'ai lu un chapitre, on 
J'ai lu un chapitre ce matin, 
Hier j'ai lu, ou J'ai lu hier, 

Adverbial expressions, as may be seen from this example, are 
governed by the same rule (406). 

Adverbs, in French, with the exception of ne in negative sen- 
tences, never stand between the nominative pronoun and the verb. 

Ex.: 



I have read a chapter this morning, or 

This morning I read a chapter. 

I read yesterday, or yesterday I read. 



J'ai parfaitement compris cela, 
Je ne veux pas le faire, 



I perfectly understood it. 
I do not want to do it. 



406. Aggregations of words used as adverbs are called adverbial 
expressions. 

Such are : 

Hire sans-cesse, To laugh incessantly. 



Courir long-temps, 
Venir d-dessein, 



To run a' long time. 
To come jmrposely. 



LIST OF ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS MOST USED IN FRENCH. 



A-jamais, 
A-la fin, 
A -present, 
Long-temps, 
Sans-cesse, 
A-dessein, 



Forever. 

At last. 

Now. 

For a long time. 

Incessantly. 

Purposely. 



En-general, 

En-arriere, 

Au-hasard, 

De-nouveau, 

Tour-a-tour, 

Tout-a-coup, 



Generally. 
Backward. 
By chance. 
Anew. 
By turns. 
Suddenly. 



Conjugate under the affirmative, interrogative, and negative forms, 
with the adverbs en, y, aller, retourner, y aller, y retourner, s'y plaire, 
etc., in all their modes, persons, and tenses. 



Present Indicative. 



Je 


m'en vais 


I 


9° 




M'en vais je ? 


Ho 


I ] 




Tu 


t'en vas 


Thou 


go est 




T'en vas-tu ? 


Host 


thou 


>> 


11 


s'en va 


He 


goes 


; t 5 


S'en va-t-il? 


Hoes 


he 




Nous 


nous en allons 


We 


9° 


3 


Nous en allons-nous ? 


Ho 


we 


"5 


Vous 


vous en allez 


You 


9° 


Vous en allez-vous ? 


Ho 


you 


§, 


lis 


s'en vont etc. 


They 


9° J 




S'en vont-ils ? 


Ho 


they 





15 



164 



GRAMMAR. 



Y aller, or aller la, to go there. 

Present Indicative. 



J* ' 




' vais 


I go 




'vais-je? 


Do I 


Tu 




vas 


Thou goe8t 




vas-tu ? 


Dost thou 


11 




va 


He goes 


- fc Y< 


va-t-il ? 


Does he 


Nous 


■ 7 ■ 


allons 


We -\ 


allons-nous ? 


Do we 


Vous 




allez 


You > go 




allez-vous? 


Do you 


lis 




( vont 


They J J 




vont-ils ? 


Do they 



Q 



ORAL PRACTICE. 

Combine some adverbs or adverbial expressions with the numbers 

of our resume, thirty-third lesson, susceptible of such combination. 

Ex.: 

1. Comprends-tu bien ce livre? 2. Je me promenerai long-temps et ltd 
restera a la maison, etc. 



RESUME OF THE THIRTY-FOURTH LESSON. 

Written Practice. — 1. She will go elsewhere to work. 2. Now 
you are free and very rich. 3. We will be near the house or there- 
about. 4. Then you will come to see us to-morrow? 5. It is enough 
already for to-day ; after to-morrow we will bring you some more. 
6. Reflect before doing it : then we may relent towards you. 7. When 
you arrive we will go together immediately. 8. Truly you have 
many friends, but I have as many as you. 9. Be ready, for we will 
soon leave this place. 10. Indeed, you are very sorrowful, my friends. 
11. How many books have you now in your library? 12. Should 
you go in the house I will go out. 13. Your furniture is not in: it 
is out, sir. 14. You were gone for the day you told me, and you 
return already? 15. Hereafter you must stay at home and work 
with the other children. 16. Your hat is not upon the table: it is 
under it. 17. For the future you must study more steadily. 18. I 
have already given you some money : should you work diligently you 
shall have more. 19. If we start together we will both stop in the 
same place. 20. Here is your father, there is your mother, both 
sick and dying with grief caused by your bad conduct. 21. This is 
your house ; but that is not yours, I am sure. 22. Stop actually your 
play, and learn attentively your lessons. 23. It is always better for 
man to do right than wrong. 24. Never will we consent to it. 25. 
Will they go afterwards ? 26. You are positively mistaken in that. 
27. He started suddenly without saying a word. 28. They were 
quite dissatisfied with us. 29. We are too much fatigued to walk 
to your house to-day or to-morrow. 30. By-and-by you must call on> 



ADVERB. 165 

us. 31. You disturb us continually from our labor. 32. Did you 
ever see such men, seeking greedily riches at the expense of life ? 
33. He travels incognito in this country. 34. That lottery-ticket 
was given me gratis. 35. He was found nearly dead on the road. 

QUESTIONS. 

390. Qu'est-ce que Padverbe, et quel est son emploi? 391. Quelle 
est la signification de Padverbe ? 392. Quels sont ceux d'entre eux 
qui requierent des complements? 393. Dans quel cas les adjectifs 
deviennent-ils adverbes? 394. Quel changement eprouvent les 
adjectifs en devenant adverbes? 395. Quels sont les adverbes qui 
reclament la preposition de devant les substantifs indetermin6s, et la 
preposition a devant les verbes a Pindicatif ? 396. Dans quels autre 
cas ne sont-ils pas suivis de la preposition de ? 397. Quelle est la 
remarque a faire sur les adverbes en, y, from there, there f 398. Quel 
est le complement que reclame Padverbe bien quand on Pemploie 
entre deux verbes? 399. Qu'avez-vous a dire sur cet adverbe quand 
on Pemploie devant des substantifs pluriels determines ? 400. Quel 
est Pemploi des adverbes de quantite plus, moins? 401. Quelle 
preposition reclame apres lui Padverbe rienf 402. Quelle est la 
preposition qu'il reclame devant Pinfinitif des verbes ? 403. Quelle 
est la signification de Padverbe jamais quand on Pemploie seul? 

404. Quelle est-elle quand ce mot est precede ou suivi d'une negation ? 

405. Quelle est, d'ordinaire, la place qu'oceupent les adverbes dans 
les propositions ? 406. Qu'appelle-t-on locutions adverbiales ? 



THIRTY-FIFTH LESSON. 

Comparisons and their Degrees. 

dO 1 ?. Both in ^French and English, adjectives or adverbs may be 
modified by means of adverbs, as shown in the following examples : 
Plus beau, plus souvent, plus rarement, More beautiful, oftener, rarer. 

408. To mark degree in quality or quantity, three adjectives in 

French are susceptible of inflexions. 

Meilleur } ( plus bon (never used in French), (Better. 

Pire > instead of < plus mauvais, answering to < Worse. 

Moindre J (plus petit, [lesser. 



166 GRAMMAR. 

409. In the first part of comparisons, the following adverbs are 

used to express degrees in quality or quantity : 

Aussi, autant de, As, as much or as many. 

Plus, plus de, More. 

Moins, moins de, mieux, Less, few, better. 

Ex.: 

Autant de sagesse que de valeur, As much wisdom as valor 

Moins sage qu'instruit, Less wise than learned. 

Aussi nombreux que puissants, As numerous as powerful. 

Mieux Sieve" que Son, Better educated than good. 

410. Que used for as, than, connects the two terms of com- 
parisons : 

1st. When the qualities or quantities expressed in the first term, 
understood in the second, are represented there by the owner's 
name or pronouns holding their place. 

Ex.: 

Autant de livres que mon frere, As many books as my brother. 

Moins vertueux qu'elle, Less virtuous than she. 

Aussi vicieux que lui, As vicious as he. 

2d. When the qualities (not quantities) expressed in the first 

term are compared with others expressed equally in the second. 

Ex.: 

Aussi belle que sage, As handsome as good. 

Moins malheureux que mechant, Less unhappy than wicked. 

Plus ignorant qu'instruit, More ignorant than learned. 

411. Que de is used for as, than (881), more than, when the 
qualities or quantities compared are expressed by name in the two 
terms. 

Ex.: 

Autant de vertu que de science, As much virtue as science. 

Plus d'hommes que de femmes, More men than women. 

Moins de terres cultivees que de forets, Less ploughed land than forests. 

412* Remark.— : Pire answers to worse, and may be replaced by 
plus mauvais. Plus bon, answering to better, cannot be used in 
French, as remarked in the foregoing lines (408). . 

Ex.: 

Ceci est pire que cela, or pis que cela This is worse than that. 

(811), 
Cela est plus mauvais encore, That is worse yet. 

L'autre chose est meilleure, The other thing is better. 

412 bis. Moindre, plus petit, answering to smaller, are both used 
for things. Moindre is not used generally for persons. 



ADVERB. 



167 



Ex. 

La partie est moindre que le tout, 
II est plus petit que sa sceur, 



The part is less than the whole. 
He is smaller than his sister. 



The inflections et for masculine, ette for feminine, added to certain 
substantives or adjectives used substantively, impart to those word3 
an idea of diminutiveness, answering to little in English. 

Ex.: 

Jeannet, Jeannette, f Jean, Jeanne, Little John, little Jane. 

Chatelet, maisonnette, , . ,. /.] Chateau, etc.. Small castle, small house. 

Chevrette. agneiet, e 1 Chevre, etc., Little goat, little lamb. 

Fourchette, lunette, lunette-s, [ Fourche, etc., Fork, spyglass, spectacles. 

Chaumiere, in French, has for diminutive chaumine, little cottage. 

ORAL PRACTICE. 

Preceded by the masculine or feminine forms of the article, or 
by determinative adjectives, the substantives given below should be 
combined with adjectives, and by means of adverbs (410), given for 
making comparisons, the pupil should construct sentences like the 
following : 

Ex.: 

Un homme moins mechaDt que vif. 
La femme plus grande que jolie. 
Son ehapeauest aussi fin que le mien. 
Ma vache est plus grasse que la votre. 
Ce cafe est meilleur que celui-la. 
Plus d'argent que <f esprit. 

Bemark. — Superlatives are formed by placing the article (agreeing 
with substantives) befor^.each adverb employed in comparisons (548). 

Ex.: 

Le plus habile nest pas le plus savant. 
La plus sage et la plus belle de ces dames. 

"When combining words, pupils must be careful that their combina- 
tions express clear ideas. These exercises constitute the first step 
in composition, and require only attention. Should they possess a 
good knowledge of our preceding lessons, junior pupils will, if well 
directed, experience but little difficulty. 



Homme, 


Yin, 


Arbre, 


Courage, 


Femme, 


Viande, 


Maison, 


Argent, 


Enfant, 


Pain. 


Chateau, 


Monnaie, 


Fille. 


Cheval, 


Musique, 


Bourse, 


Sucre, 


Vulture, 


Riviere, 


Vache, 


Cafe, 


Epee, 


Lac, 


Lait, 


Table, 


Canne, 


Jument, 


Verre, 


Chaise, 


Habit, 


Chien, 


Morceau, 


SOB, 


Eau, 


Couteau, 
15* 


Dent. 



168 GRAMMAR. 

RESUME OF THE THIRTY-FIFTH LESSON. 

Written Practice. — 1. Yesterday was finer than to-day, though not 
so fine as the day before. 2. Though smaller than hers, that 
house is larger than your father's. 3. Though much better than 
theirs, that bread is not so good as yours. 4. Do you run as fast as 
he or she ? 5.1 may run as fast as you, but not quite so fast as he. 
6. We oftener go to church than you and they. 7. That horse does 
not run so fast as yours. 8. They are not so learned as they 
appear at first sight. 9. That house is much less commodious than 
theirs. 10. These gentlemen are older than those ladies. 11. Surely 
those men have more enemies than friends. 12. That handsome 
lady has less money than the banker's daughter:* she is consequently 
less admired in society. 13. They have much more talent, with* 
much less pride than he and she. 14. Have you more horses 
than mares in your stable ? 15. These men are much less vigilant 
than those poor women. 16. Should you give them more wine you 
will cause more harm than good. 17. Why are you less learned 
than they ? It is, sir, because you study much less. 18. When the 
bell rings we will be here before him and you. 19. You have more 
good than bad books in your library. 20. Your friend the physician 
has much less reputation than his talent deserves : has he not ? 

QUESTIONS. 

407. Comment se font les comparaisons en franc, ais ? 408. Quel 
est le mot anglais correspondant a meilleur f 409. Quels sont les 
adverbes que Fon emploie pour exprimer Its divers d6gr6s de com- 
paraison? 410. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on que pour relier le 
premier terme d'une comparaison avec le second? 411. Quand em- 
ploie-t-on que de ? 412. Quel est Pemploi du mot pire, et quel est 
son correspondant en anglais ? 412 bis. Qu'exprime moindre, et 
comment 1* emploie-t-on ? 



THIRTY-SIXTH LESSON. 
Preposition (19). 



413* Prepositions are invariable words, showing the connection 
between two words in a sentence. They always depend on comple- 
ments, as shown in the following example. 



PREPOSITION. 169 

Between these two words: je vais eau, I go water, many 

connections or relations may be found or expressed. 

f tendency, f vers "1 (towards^ 

Viz.: a position, T . J dans li» ao „ r„„ \ in [ tne 

relation of superiority, JevalS 1sur | leau - 7 ff°jo» * water. 

[ resistance. [ contre J [ against 

In these cases the words vers, dans, sur, contre, towards, in, on, 
against, expressing those connections, are prepositions. Their 
choice depends upon the meaning in the mind, not upon words ex- 
pressed (1195) in sentences. 

4:14* Prepositions alone have incomplete significations. Words 
( completing their meaning are called complements of prepositions ; 
they form always indirect objects (87). 

{aller ct Rome, Going to Rome, 

parler de nos amis, Speaking of our friends, 

travailler pour eux, Working for them, 

( Rome,^ Rome, 

the words < nos amis, our friends, 

( eux, them, 

are the complements of the prepositions a, de, pour, to, of, for. 

Prepositions joined to complements form what grammarians call 
indirect objects or complements (70). 

Complements of prepositions or prepositive expressions are some- 
times understood (855). 

Ex. : ' 

/; 

Ce prix est au-dessus du cours, celui-la This is above the market price, that is 

est au-dessous, below it. 

Lui est devant moi, elle derri&re, He is in front of me, she is behind. 

Remark. — Occurring before words beginning with a vowel or 
7i mute, e, in the preposition de, is elided (24). 

The preposition^, in French, is used conjointly with the negative 
words ne, pas, answering to no, not, in English. When ni repeated 
replaces ne, pas, the preposition de is not used. 

Ex.: 

Nous n'avons pas assez d'hommes, We have not men enough. 

Vous n'avez pas de pain, You have no bread. 

lis n'ont ni pain ni viande (942), They have neither bread nor meat. 

Sans, without, expressing want, dispenses with the use of nega- 
tions (418, 925). 






GRAMMAR. 



ST OF PREPOSITIONS MOST EN I 



A. 


At, to, in. 






In spite of. 




ir. 




Moyennant, 


With. 




Whereat. 






■dthstanding. 


A";-.-:. 


:re. 




Outre, 


Besides. 




With. 




Par. 


By, throng*. 






Parmi, 


Amongst. 


Contre, 


I inst. 




Pendant, 


During. 




In. 




Pour, 


. in order. 








Without. 




:e. 




Sauf, 


-:pt. 




Behind. 




Selon, 


sording. 




as soon, 


■MM. 




Under. 


Devant, 


'ore, opposite* 


Suiyant, 


According. 


Durant, 


I . ■ .:. 




Sur, 


Upon, to the, by, 




In, to, at. 






about. 


WadJL% 


±j-.~.\ IML 




Touchant, 


Touching. 




Tmmmrmm, 






Towards. 




Beside*, 




i -vis, 


Opposite. 




AbBM p r. 









A. verbs expressing motion, answer to to, in English. 

Ex.: 

Je rais en France, a Paris, I go to France, to Paris. 

Remark. — The preposition a, answering to to, on, etc., is connected 
with proper names or before invariable expressions used only in one 
number, either singular or plural.* 

Ex.: 
D yx a Rome, a Paris, a cheyal, a He goes to Borne, to Paris, on horseback, 

to vespers. 
Cee: I i a Paul, This belongs to Peter, that to Paul. 

« allex a la ehasse, a la peche, ■ go hunting, fishing, e 

415. IhepttC ■ en. in, must not be confounded: 

il pronoun en, de lui, d'elle, d'eux, d'elles, 
de cela, of him, of her, of them, of it (377). 

Ex.: 
. £ en parlons : Tons en arez Tt speak of him, her, them, it; you have 

■MM, 

_ Witih en contraction of the adverbial expression de Id, which 
refers always to places left (397). 

Ex. : 
Allei-vc- Son, j'en viens, Are you going to Paris* JVb, / come 

thence. 



* FasqneuVs Method, p. 109-7. Pujol and Van Norman, p. 122-3. 



PREPOSITION 171 

(&) With en conjunction, answering to, as, like, in English (420). 
Ex.: 
H parle em sage et agit en fou, He speaks like a wise man and acta like a fool, 

416. When speaking or reading, void refers to what follows; 
wild, to what precedes. Both answer to this is, thai is (829). 

Pointing to objects, they answer to this is, that is. When referring 

he places occupied by persons or things, they answer to here is, 

there is, in English. 

Yoiei trois choses qu'on pent regarder These three things tee may consider as 

comme le mobile des actions des "motors of human actions, interest, 

homines, Finteret, le plaisir et la pleasure, and glory. 
gloire, 

417. Therefore, void, voila, must not be confounded with ici est, 
la est, ici sont, la sont, here is, here are. The first refer to persons or 
things ; the last, only to places occupied by persons or things. 

Ex.: 
i ton pere, voila ta mere, This is thy father, that thy mother. 

LI es: Ion pere, ici est ta mere, la sont There is thy father, here thy mother, 
les autres membres de ta famille, there are the other members of your 

family. 

41$. Aggregations of words used as prepositions are called pre- 

ive expressions; locutions jpripositives, in French (872). 
Such are: 



A l'^gard de, In consideration of. 

En faveur de, In favor of. 

A la reserve de, With the exception of. 



Quant a, As for. 

Jusqu'a, As far, till then, 

Au-dela de, Beyond. 



Remark. — Before indeterminate nouns, sans, without, does not ex- 
press possession. 

argent, sans pain, sans conrage, Without money, bread, or courage. 

It does before determinate substantives : 

Sans F argent que nous avons gagn£, Without the money we earned, we could 
nous n*aurion3 pu acheter cea not have bought those houses. 

Sans ce courage il eut 6te vaincu, He would have been subdued without 

that courage. 

En-amont. en-aval, i'rove stream, beloxo stream. 

En-avant, en-arri£re, answer to : I Ahead, backwards. 

En-dessus, en-dessous, {Above, under. 

When followed by the preposition de, sous answers to in. It cor- 
responds to on when followed by the demonstrative adjective ce 
(363). 



172 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Sous ce rapport vous avez tort, On that ground you are wrong. 

Sous d'autres rapports nous les In other respects we are equal to them. ] 

ggalons, 

The preceding list of prepositions are intended for oral practice. 

RESUME OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH LESSON. 

Translated into French, the following exercise must be rendered 
negatively and interrogatively in the same language. Number 3 
is not susceptible of interrogative form : make it simply negative. 

Ex.: 

1. Je vais a Paris. 2. Je ne vais pas a Paris ; ne vais-je pas a Paris ? 
3. Attendu que cet homme a ete condamn6; attendu que cet homme 
n'a pas 6te condamne. 

Written Practice. — 1. I go to Paris. 2. I am next after you. 3. 
Whereas that man has been convicted. 4. You go before them. 
5. They will be with sister. 6. Come to my house, sir. 7. Do lean 
against the wall. 8. They shall come in the school. 9. I speak of 
him, but this comes from her. 10. Here we wait for them since three 
days. 11. They stood silent and motionless behind the curtain. 12. 
As soon as you come, I will see you. 13. All of them now stand be- 
fore us. 14. They fasted for three whole days. 15. I am actu- 
ally in France on my way to Italy. 16. Between him and her there 
is some kind of affection. 17. You did behave shamefully towards 
their friends. 18. Besides that unfortunate circumstance, I see no- 
thing against them or you. 19. That alone excepted, he is perfectly 
right. 20. In spite of you and your threats we will do so. 21. With 
that condition we accept your offer. 22. Notwithstanding your 
behavior, we must abstain from seeing you. 23. Besides this business 
we have many others not less important. 24. It was through Dover 
that we came from London to Paris. 25. There is much idle talk going 
on amongst those people. 26. We will wait for you a week more. 
27. They might come in order to please us. 28. They are literally 
without resources. 29. Save this house, nothing is left to them. 30. 
According to their will, we shall study. 31. We are completely in 
their power.' 32. We come according to their will. 33. Your brother 
is on that vessel. 34. Touching this point you are right. 35. They 
are ungrateful towards their father. 35. We live opposite your 
house. 



CONJUNCTION. 173 

Remark. — Such exercises as the preceding should be repeated till 
the pupils are thoroughly versed in the use of French prepositions. 

QUESTIONS. 

413. Quel est l'emploi des propositions? 414. Les prepositions ont- 
elles en elles-memes un sens complet? 415. Quelle est la remarque 
a faire sur la preposition en? 416. Comment emploie-t-on void, voild, 
et a quoi se rapportent ces composes? 417. En quoi different-ils des 
locutions adverbiales ici est, la est? 418. Qu'entend-on par locutions 
pr6positives, et comment emploie-t-on les prepositions de, sans, en 
franqais ? 



THIRTY-SEVENTH LESSON. 

Conjunction (19). 



. 419. Conjunctions are invariable words. They connect propo- 
sitions or parts of sentences with other propositions or other parts 
of sentences (836). 
Ex.: 

H faut aimer a etudier et a reflechir, We must like study and reflection: one 
parce que l'etude rend savant, et makes us learned, the other prudent, 

que la reflexion rend sage, 

The words et, parceque, and, because, in this example are con- 
junctions, connecting the members or parts of the sentence. 

420. When the natural arrangement of words is inverted, conjunc- 
tions may sometimes be placed at the beginning of sentences (861). 

Ex.: 

Quand on connait sa faute on manque When ice know our failings our guilt is 
doublement a ses devoirs, twofold. 

To ascertain how the conjunction quand, tchen, connects the two 
members of the above sentence, it is only necessary to replace the 
words in their natural position: 

On manque doublement quand on connait sa faute. 

In this example the conjunction quand, wlien, connects the first 
member of the sentence, on manque doublement, with the other, on 
connait sa faute. 



174 



GRAMMAR. 



Remark. — Conjunctions connect propositions without governing 
any mode. The contrary is erroneously asserted by some Methods. 
See Fasquelle's Method, p. 455-1 ; Pujol and Van Norman, pp. 124, 
258, 259, and many dictionaries. 

Remark. — En is a conjunction when used in French instead of 

comme, answering to as, like, in English. 

Ex.: 

II agit en homme, en soldat, en savant, He acts as a man, like a soldier, as a 

scholar. 

The desire to attain conciseness and clearness is the cause of those 
changes of the office of en. 



LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS MOST USED. 



Ainsi, 

Car, 

Cependant, 

Comme, 

Done, 

En, enfin, 

Et, 

Lorque, que, 

Mais, 



go. 


Neanmoins, 


Nevertheless. 


Because. 


Ni, 


Neither. 


Meanwhile, yet, ^ 


Or, ou, 


Now, then, or. 


As, like* 


Pourtant, 


However. 


There/ore. 


Quand (418), 


Whenever. 


As, at last. 


Quoique, 


Though. 


And. 


Si, 


If- 


When, as. 


Sinon, 


Unless, if not, other- 


But. 




wise. 



421. Aggregations of words used as conjunctions are called con- 
junctive expressions. Such are: 

Ainsi que, 
Tandis que, 



Au reste, 
Au surplus, 
Par consequent, 



Besides. 
However. 

Consequently, there- 
fore. 



As, so as. 

Whilst. 

Unless. 



A moins que, 

For oral practice use the preceding list of conjunctions. 
Once translated into French, make direct constructions with every 
inverted sentence contained in the following exercise, using negations 
whenever the meaning allows it. 

Ex.: 
Ainsi que vous nous nous sommes trompes, or nous nous sommes 
tromp6s ainsi que vous. Ainsi que vous nous ne nous sommes 
pas trompes, etc. 

Written Practice. — 1. We have been mistaken, and so have you. 2. 
Work assiduously, my friend, for labor is the companion of virtue.* 



• Phrases like this do not admit the use of negations: therefore pupils 
must be careful about the sense of what they write. 



INTERJECTION. 175 

3. Though we love and cherish them much, nevertheless they are 
far from loving us as they ought. 4. As you seem to wish it, we will 
stop our visits. 5. He pretends to be happy: he must therefore be 
pleased with his position. 6. At last the thing we wished is obtained. 
7. Let us be honest, and we shall be happy all our life. 8. When 
you come we will be gone forever. 9. As for me, I am satisfied ; but 
are you so, my child? 10. It rains very hard: we nevertheless will go 
to the country to-day. 11. Neither he nor you will be likely to be 
satisfied with yourselves. 12. Now when we are gone, where will you 
go? 13. He nevertheless remembers it very well, in spite of his bad 
memory. 14. When we think of that misfortune our Hood curdles. 

15. Though poor and distressed, we are not less the friends of virtue. 

16. Should you do that you must take the consequence. 17. Do 
good work for us, or we will be angry with you. 18. Should you 
be displeased with that book, besides returning it to me, you may 
give it to any one you please. 19. That is done, however; you must 
not think of it any more. 20. He needs you much, consequently 
come immediately to his house. 21. According to your wish we will 
leave to-morrow for the war. 22. Whilst we study he plays. 23. 
Unless you wish to have it, I will retain that book. 

Remark. — Some of the above sentences are purposely not sus- 
ceptible of inversion, the conjunctions standing in their proper place. 
In those cases pupils will underline them on their copy, as indicated 
at. number 10 of this exercise by the italics. 

QUESTIONS. 

419. Qu'est-ce que la conjonction, et quel est son emploi? 420. 
Quelle est la place qu'occupe generalement la conjonction dans une 
phrase, et quel est le cas qui forme exception k cette regie gSnerale? 
421. Qu'appelle-t-on expressions ou locutions conjonctives? 



THIRTY-EIGHTH LESSON. 

Interjection (19). 



422. An interjection is a word suddenly spoken to express some 
lively emotion. The most usual in French are (849) : 

16 



176 



GRAMMAR. 



To mark 



Surprise, 

Pain, 

Admiration, 

Aversion, 

Silence, 

Calls, 

Interrogation, 

Impatience, 



Ha! quoi! 

Ah! aie! hllas! 

Oh! ah! 

Fi! 

Paix! chut! 

Hola! 

He bien! 

Bah! 



My! what! 
A las ! 
Oh! 

Fie ! Jie on ! 
Tut! be still. 
Ho! Halloo! 
Well! 
Pooh! 



423. Interjective expressions consist in the union of some words 
used as interjections. 



For 
instance 



( Grand Dieu ! morbleu ! corbleu ! parbleu ! 
. i J^pte ciel ! 
( Dame ! Grace a. Dieu, a-d'autres ! etc., 



By heaven I my ! 
By heaven ! Zounds ! 
Bless me ! Fudge ! etc. 



RESUME OF THE THIRTY-EIGHTH LESSON. 

Written Practice. — 1. My! what does this mean? 2. Alas! how un- 
fortunate we are! 3. Oh! what a beautiful picture! 4. Fie! fie on 
you, villain! 5. Tut! be still. 6. Ho! come here. 7. Well! what 
are you to answer me, sir? 



To Teachers. 

Having translated the foregoing exercise, let pupils set each sentence in the 
following order. 

Sentences. Words to be added to each sentence. 



1. Quoi! que signifie cela? 


Possessive 

adjective. 
Preposition. 


Substantive. 




2. Helas ! que nous sommes 


Demonstrative 


Substantive, 


malheureux ! 




adjective. 




3. Oh ! le magnifique tableau ! 


Relative pro- 
noun. 


Adverb. 




4. Fi ! fi ! miserable ! 


Verb 

(eloigner), 


Preposition. 


Pers. pronoun. 


5. Paix ! silence ! 




Adjective. 


Substantive. 


6. Hola ! venez ici. 




id. 


id. 


7. Bien ! qu'allez-vous repon- 








dre, monsieur? 




id. 


id. 



This is to show the progress of the mind in composition, which consists 
merely in a proper choice of words, producing clear expressions of our ideas 
when put in their proper place. 

According to the directions given in our preceding lessons, should you add 
a possessive adjective and a qualified substantive to number 5, you must 
remember : 

Possessive adjectives and qualifying adjectives form two classes of 
words subordinate to substantives (281). Possessive adjectives for gender, 
number and person (366), qualifying adjectives for gender and number (331). 



INTERJECTION. 177 

The choice of a substantive masculine singular or plural will require the sub- 
ordinate words to agree in gender and number with that substantive. Ac- 
cordingly, the choice of enfants, children, masculine plural, determines the 
gender and number of the subordinate parts of speech. Therefore, mes chera 
enfants may be added as complement to that sentence. 

Ex. : 
Chut! paix! mes chers enfants, Tut! peace! my dear children. 

From this example, it will be seen that upon the choice of substantives de- 
pend the person, number, and gender of possessive adjectives, and the gender 
and number of qualifying adjectives. This is what is called agreement (331). 

In number 4. Fi! miserable followed by a verb requires that verb in one of 
the three persons, either singular or plural (33, 34). The choice of preposi- 
tions will always be determined by the verb. Ex. : 61oignez-vous de, approchez- 
vous de, allez d eux (67); toithdraw from, come near, go to them, etc.; that of 
pronouns for person depends on verbs, which being here in the second person 
require for complements (73) pronouns of the first or third person (372). 
Therefore, 61oignez-vous, or eloigne-toi, may be added to number 4. 

Ex.: 
Fi! miserable, eloignez-vous de moi, Fie, villain! withdraw from me. 

Remark. — In exercises where pupils have to make simple translations, 
viz. : to replace words by words, not ideas by ideas, as in those exercises, they 
may be guided by the memory of words, which, on account of their multiplicity, 
may occasion confusion. On the contrary, applied to the memorizing of general 
principles, few in number, free from details that intellectual faculty will ac- 
quire a clear perception of things, and produce positive results. 

What precedes naturally leads us to a distinction to be made on th« study 
of living languages. Whenever learners live in places where the languages in 
study are of daily practice, refreshed continually by the use of constructions, 
memory may supply the place of methoda or classifications. On the contrary, 
when learners depend only on study for that acquisition, methods and classi- 
fications are indispensable to obtain that correctness of speech which cannot 
be acquired without knowledge of the elements contained in the first part of 
our method. 

To impress more deeply on pupils' minds the importance of that first part, 
we will remark that upon the perfect knowledge of the principles they have 
reviewed depends entirely the success of their study ; should they master that 
part, the study of the syntax will be easy and attractive. 

Should teachers think it advisable to review those elements of the French 
language, — and this we strongly recommend, — as a new course of exercises 
for pupils, we suggest the French translation of their daily lesson. The con- 
sequent blending of practice and theory will perfect our oral system, and 
French answers will follow French questions. 



178 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 
Qu'est-ce que la grammaire francaise ? page 3. Answer : La grammaire fran- 
caise, etc. (1). 

QUESTIONS. 

422. Qu'est-ce que 1' interjection, et quel en est Pemploi? 423. 
Qu'appelle-t-on locution interjective? 



THIKTY-NINTH LESSON. 
Orthography, or Spelling. 



424. Orthography, or spelling, is the art of correctly using cha- 
racters or orthographic signs of languages.* 

425. The characters are the letters of the alphabet (4). 

426. The signs are: 

The accents, apostrophe, cedilla, trema or diaeresis, hyphen, and 
parenthesis. 

Lest they should be confounded with their numerous exceptions, 
we will abstain from giving rules on this essentially practical part 
of stuay. Practice in writing, and judicious reading, acquainting us 
with the signification of words, will leave at the same time in our 
memory traces of their correct spelling. Guided by that natural 
process, let us, therefore, learn first the meaning and pronunciation 
of words, and then their spelling will be of easy acquisition. 

Use of Capital Letters. 

427. Every man's name must begin with a capital or large letter, 
— majuscule in French. 

Ex.: 

Virgile, Cic6ron, Racine, Pierre Cor- Virgil, Cicero, Racine, Peter Cor- 

neille, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, neille, John James Bousseau, He- 

Helo'ise, Abeillard, Fulbert, loise, Abelarol, Fulbert. 

* Silent on this practical part of study, some grammars are very incorrect 
in the use of these signs. 



SPELLING. 179 

Every name representing a place or town, state, province, king- 
dom, or empire. 

Ex.: 

Paris, la France, les Pays-Bas, le Bas- Paris, France, the Low Countries, the 
Empire, les Etats-Unis, la Nor- Low Empire, the United States, 

mandie, le Palais Royal, le Lou- Normandy, the Itoyal Palace, the 

vre, le Capitole, Washington, Louvre, the Capitol, Washington. 

Every name of a nation, used as such, representing a class, and «» 
not connected with persons or things. 

Ex.: 

Les Europeans, les Americains, les Europeans, Americans, French, Rus- 
Francais, les Russes, les Nor- sians, Normans, Burgundians, Celts, 
mands, les Bourguignons, les etc. 
Celtes, etc., 

Names of seas, rivers, mountains, lakes, etc. 

Ex.: 

La M6diterranee, la Mer-Noire, la The Mediterranean Sea; the Black Sea, 

Mer-Rouge, la Seine, le RhSne, the Red Sea, the Seine, the Rhone, 

les Alpes, les Pyr6n6es, le lac the Alps, the Pyrenees, Lake Erie. 
Erie, 

The four cardinal points, when used to indicate parts of the world, 
or some of its divisions. 

Ex.: 

L'Amerique-du-Sud, l'AmSrique-du- South America, North America, the 

Nord, la mer-du-Nord. Le Nord North Sea. The North unites with 

se ligue avec TAngleterre, England. 

I Orient, 
cci en , » are - n many cases use( j f or 
Saptentrion, J 

When moral beings are personified, nouns representing them begin 
with capital letters. 

Ex.: 

La git la sombre Envie a Toeil timide et There stands dark Envy with timid and 
louche, squinting eye. 

When there is no personification, the capital letter is not used. 

Ex.: 

TJenvic s'attache aux grands talents, Envy attacks great merit. 

The first word in a book, chapter, sentence, or verse, in poetry, must 
begin with a capital letter. 

16* 



r Est, 


East. 


Ouest, 


West. 


Sud, 


South. 


{ Nord, 


North. 



180 GRAMMAR. 



Accents. 

428. There are three kinds of accents, acute (r), grave (>), and 
circumflex (x). Their use is to modify the sounds of certain vowels, 
or to distinguish certain words from others. 

429. The acute accent is placed on closed e when it ends 
a syllable. 

Ex.: 

VS-ri-t6, a-mS-ni-te, Truth, amenity. 

Therefore, rocher, nez, are written without accent; because r, z, 
terminate the syllable instead of e. 

430. The grave accent is used : 

(1.) On open e, when that letter closes a syllable, or precedes the 
consonant s. 

Ex.: 

P£-re, me-re, discre-te, ex-ces, ex-pres, a-pr&s (10). 

431* Remark. — E is open whenever it terminates the syllable, 
or when followed by a consonant preceding e mute. 

Ex.: 

Mi-se-re, pro-phe-te, fi-de-le, jeme-ne, Misery, prophet, faithful, I lead, I 
je pros-pe-re, prosper. 

The following are exceptions. 
Substantives ending in 6ge, such as : 

Piege, manege, etc., Snare, artifice, etc. 

The interrogative forms (184) : 

Aimg-je ? donn6-je ? Do I love ? do I give t 

or exclamative sentences, as: 

Puiss6-je ! dusse-je ! May I! can I! 

where the final e is closed (621). 

432. (2.) As a mark of distinction, on 

A preposition, des adverb, To, as soon. 

Lit, oil, adverbs (390), There, where. 

Oil pronoun (383), ' Which. 

In order that they be not confounded with: 

A, third person singular of avoir, to have, which takes no accent. 
Des, contracted article (315), of the, or some. 
On, conjunction, or. 



SPELLING. 181 

Ex.: 

C'est n'etre bon & rien de n'e'tre bon We are good for nothing when only 
qu'a soi, good for ourselves. 

L'homme des sa naissance a le senti- From his birth man is sensible to plea- 
ment de la joie et de la douleur, sure and pain. 

Oil la vertu finit la commence le vice, Virtue ends where vice begins, 

Le but ou nous tendons c'est la science, Our aim is science. 

433. (3.) It is used on 

Ca, de ca, deja, hola, voila, There, beyond, already, halloo, that is. 

Cd, answering to that, we have already remarked, is also used for 
de cela (379). 

434* The circumflex accent is required: 

(1.) In cases of prolongation of sounds, when some letters are 
dropped. 

Ex.: 

Age, gpitre, t£te, connaitre, Age, epistle, head, to know, 

which were formerly spelled : 

Aage, Spistre, teste, connoistre, etc. 
It occurs, also, when a long stands before ch or the articulation t.* 

Ex.: 

Lache, batiment, mature, Coward, man-of-war, masts, 

and is placed upon the penultimate e, when words end in $me. 

Ex.: 

Probleme, extreme, supreme, Problem, extreme, supreme. 

Numeral adjectives having the sound of £ are exceptions to the 
foregoing rule. 

Ex.: 

Troisieme, quatrieme, dixieme, Third, fourth, tenth. 

(2.) On t, in verbs ending in aitre, and in every N tense of these 
verbs where that vowel is followed by t (179 bis). 

Ex.: 

II pait, il paralt, il accroitra, He feeds, he appears, he will increase. 

(3.) On o, preceding the endings le, me, ne. 
Ex.: 

P61e, dome, tr6ne, Pole, cupola, throne. 

* By the articulation t is meant the natural sound of that letter: natal, 
partir, bouton, etc. The articulation of that letter does not exist in nation, 
patience, minutie, where t sounds like ss. 



182 GRAMMAR. 

(4.) With possessive pronouns (382) used as such (653), to dis- 
tinguish them from possessive adjectives. 

Ex.: 

Le notre, le votre, les notres, les v6tres, Our, your, ours, yours. 

or when used absolutely (654) in the office of substantives (271). 

(5.) With the first and second persons plural of the past determi- 
nate (126), or definite. 

Ex.: 

Nous allames, vous fites, We went, you did make. 

(6.) With the third person singular of the imperfect in the sub- 
junctive (141 and following). 

Ex.: 

H fallait — qu'il allat, qu'il fit, He was obliged to go, to do. 

(7.) Finally, with the adjectives mur, sur, ripe, sour, or sure, to dis- 
tinguish them from the substantive mur, wall, or the preposition sur, 
on, in English. Mure, mulberry, is a feminine substantive. 

435. (4.) As a sign of distinction, on: 

Du, redu, mu, cru, tu, etc., Due, overdue, moved, grown, kept secret, 

etc. 

Participles of the verbs devoir (172), rede voir, mouvoir, croitre, 
to owe, to owe slill t to move, to increase. Therefore croit and crolt have 
different meanings. The first signifies to believe, the last to grow. 

Apostrophe. 

436. To avoid the disagreeable effect of the meeting of two 
vowels (24), the apostrophe is used to replace the letter a, e, or i, 
when dropped. 

43 7. A is dropped in la before vowels or h mute (12). 

Ex.: 

L'ame, l'histoire, je l'estime, The soul, history, I esteem him, her, it. 

438* E is dropped : 

(1.) In je, me, te, se, de, que, ce, le, ne, whenever they come 
before words beginning with a vowel or h mute (23, 313). 

Ex.; 

J'aime, je m'^gare, il l'estime, nous / love, I lose my way, 1 esteem him, 
rinstruisons, l'essai, rhomme, etc. we instruct him, the essay, man. 



SPELLING. 183 

(2.) In lorsque, puisque, qtioiqiie, occurring before a pronoun of the 
third person : II, elle, ils, elles, on, he, she, they, or when preceding 
the numeral adjective: un, une, one, or a, an, in English (318). 

Ex.: 

Lorsqu'il parle, puisqu'elles le veulent, When he speaks, since they want it, 

lorsqu'une se trompe, quoi qu'il en when one is mistaken, whatever he 

dise, may say, 

(3.) In entre, presque, when they enter into the composition of 
words. 

Ex.: 

Entr'acte, entraider, presqu'ile, Interlude, to assut one another, penin- 

sula. 

(4.) In quelque, standing before un, autre. 

Ex.: 

Quelqu'un, quelqu' autre, Some one, somebody else. 

(5.) In 

Grand'mere, grand'messe, grand'cham- Grandmother, high mass, large room, 
bre, grand'salle, grand'rue, etc., great hall, broad street, etc. 

In the case of the conjunction si, the i is elided only before pro- 
nouns of the third person masculine, il, ils, they. 

Ex.: 

S'il veut, s'ils viennent, *i elle veut, If he wants, if they come, if she icants. 

This example shows that si is not subject to elision in feminine 
cases. 

Cedilla. 

439. In order to soften its pronunciation and give that conso- 
nant the sound of 55 instead of k (106), the cedilla is placed under 
c, when that letter precedes the vowel a, 0, or u. 

Ex.: 

Facade, lecon, recu, etc., Facade, lesson, received, etc. 

Diuresis. 

440. The diaeresis — trema in French — consists of two points or 
dots placed above a vowel, to indicate that it must not be sounded 
with the vowel which precedes. 

Ex.: 

Na-if, Sa-Ul, ci-gfte, Ingenuous, Saul, hemlock. 



184 GRAMMAR. 

Without diaeresis those words would sound nef, sol, eigne : 
The last with the sound of gue, in figue ; jig, in English. 

441. Remark. — The use of the diaeresis is erroneous when for 
that sign a grave accent may be substituted. Therefore, instead of 
writing : Poesie, poeme, poete, Chloe, etc., write : 

Ex.: 
Poesie, poeme, poete, Chloe, etc., Poesy, poem, poet, Chloe, etc. 

442* I with a diaeresis cannot take the place of y. Therefore it 
would be erroneous to write: envoier, moxen, paisan, for: 

Envoyer, moyen, paysan, etc., To send, means, countryman, etc. 

Hyphen.* 

443* The hyphen — trait d'union, in French — shows the connec- 
tion existing between two or more words. It is employed : 

(1.) Between verbs and pronouns, when the pronouns follow the 
verbs. 

Ex.: 

Je, moi, tu, nous, vous, il, ils, elles, le, 7", me, thou, we, you, they, she, it, etc. 
la, les, lui, leur, y, en, ou, 

When pronouns follow verbs, they are the subjects or comple- 
ments of those verbs (64, 69, 181). 

Ex.: 

Irai-je? viens-tu? donnait-on? ren- Shall J go? did they give? let us sur- 

dons-nous, taisez-vous, allez-y render, be silent, go there, think of 

(397), songez-y, donne-les, prenez- it, give them, take some, etc. 
en, etc., 

Where two pronouns are - required, the pronouns also must be 
connected by hyphens. 

Ex.:* 

Laisse-la-moi, donne-le-leur, Give it to me, give it to them, 

444. Remark. — Such expressions as the following are written 
without the hyphen : 

Euwoyezlachercher, faites en prendre, Send for her, have some taken; 

because the pronouns la, en, Tier, some, are not complements of 

* In the new Method the use of the hyphen is not mentioned. See Fas- 
quelle's edition 1858, and all subsequent editions. 



SPELLING. 185 

the first verb, they belong to the infinitive following. It must be 

written with different meanings : 

Paites le lire, or faites-le lire, Have that read, or make him read. 

In the first example, le is the complement of lire; in the second, 
it is the complement of faites, as shown by the English translation. 

445. (2.) Before and after the euphonic letter t. 

Ex.: 

Parle-t-il ? ira-t-on ? va-t-elle ? Does he speak ? Shall they go ? goes 

she ?. 

Remark. — We must write : 
Ya-t'en, instead of va-t-en (438), Go away. 

The plural, allez-vous-en, shows that t is the pronoun te elided, not 
a euphonic letter.* 

446. (3.) Before or after ci, la, this, that, joined to substantives, 
pronouns, adverbs, or prepositions, of which they become integral 
parts. 

Ex. : 

Celui-ci, celui-la, ces gens-ci, ces horn- This, that, these people, those men, 
mes-la, ci-dessus, ci-contre, la- above, opposite, upon, up, as far, 

dessus, la-haut, jusques-la, etc., etc. (365 bis). 

44*7. (4.) To connect Ir&s with the following word, or mime with 

the preceding personal pronoun. 

Tres-riche, tres-sagement, moi-meme, Very rich, very wisely, myself, one's 
soi-meme, self. 

448.. (5.) To take the place of the conjunction et, and, before 
numbers expressing units of different orders, not going beyond nine- 
teen. See page 189. 

Ex.: 

Dix-sept, dix-huit, dix-neuf, vingt-deux, vingt-trois, trente-quatre, trente- 
cinq, quarante-deux, quarante-six, cinquante-cinq, cinquante-neuf, 
soixante-deux, soixante-huit, soixante-douze, soixante-quinze, soixante- 
dix-sept, soixante-dix-huit, soixante-dix-neuf. 

These numerical expressions stand for 

Dix et sept, dix et huit, vingt et deux, trente et quatre, trente et cinq, quarante 
et deux, quarante et six, cinquante et cinq, cinquante et neuf, soixante et 
deux, soixante et huit, soixante et douze, soixante et quinze, etc. 

*See Pujol and Van Norman for error, p. 6-1. 



186 GRAMMAR. 

449* The conjunction et, and, must always precede the number 

one, when it is part of a number commencing a new series of units* 

not going beyond ninety-nine (448). 

Vingt et un. trente et un, quarante et Twenty-one, thirty-one, forty-one, nine- 
un, nonante et un, ty-one. 

Custom requires the hyphen to be used in quatre-vingts, though 

the sense does not admit of the conjunction et, and, in quatre- 

vingt, eighty. 

450. (6.) To connect two or more words which are but one in 
signification. Such are the several parts of compound substantives, 
certain proper names, and many adverbial expressions, which prac- 
tice will bring to our notice. 

Abat-jour, chef-lieu, eontre-poison, Shutter, chief place, antidote, rainbow, 

arc-en-ciel, s'entre-choquer, peut- to knock against each other, per- 

etre, Michel- Ange. Clermont-fer- haps, Michael Angelo, Clermont- 

rand, Chalons-sur-Saone, par-des- Ferrand, Chdlons-sur-Sdone (two 

sus, au-dedans, sur-le-champ, etc., French towns), etc. 

Ex.: 

Guillaume-le-Conquerant, William the Conqueror. 

Quatre-vingt-dix, Ninety. 

Hyphens are used in these cases, because they convey the idea of 
unity ; in the first example for person, in the last for number. 

Parenthesis. 

451. The use of the parenthesis ( ) is to enclose words that 

might be dispensed with in sentences, but which render their 

meaning more clear. 

Je croyais, moi (jugez de ma simpli- / thought, I (think of my simplicity), 
cite), que Ton devait rougir de la that I was to blush for being false. 

duplicite, 

QUESTIONS. 

424. Qu'entend-on par orthographe ? 425. Qu'appelez-vous carac- 
teres d'ecriture ? 426. Quels sont les signes orthographiques ? 427. 
Comment emploie-t-on les lettres capitales ou majuscules en fran- 
qais? 428. Combien y a-t-il d'accents ? 429. A quoi sert Taccent 
aigu? 430. Comment emploie-t-on l'accent grave ? 431. Quelle est 
la remarque a faire sur Temploi de Ye ouvert? 432. Quel est le 
second emploi de 1'accent grave ? 433. Quel en est le troisieme ? 
434. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on Taccent circonflexe ? 435. Dans 
quel autre cas emploie-t-on le m£me signe ? 436. Quel est Pemploi 



SPELLING. 187 

de Papostrophe? 437. Quand supprime-t-on d f 438. Dans quels 
cas e se trouve-t-il reniplace par une apostrophe ? 439. Quel est le 
signe orthographique appelle ctdille, et quel est son emploi ? 440. 
Indiquez la forme du trtma ainsi que 1* emploi de ce signe? 441. 
Dans quel cas Temploi du tr6ma devient-il fautif ? 442. Peut-on 
employer i surinonte* d'un tr6ma a la place de Vy t 443. Qu'est-ce 
que le trait-d' union ? 444. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur T emploi 
de ce signe? 445. Quel en est le second emploi ? 446. Quel en est 
le troisieme ? 447. Le quatrieme ? 448. Le cinquieme ? 449. Quelle 
est la remarque a faire en employant ce signe avec les nombres ? 
450. Quel est la sixieme cas ou ce signe est employe ? 451. Quel est 
le signe appell6 parenthbse, et a quoi sert-il ? 



The intelligent reader will perceive that in the hands of practical teachers, 
in its first part, our method will convey to learners a thorough knowledge of 
the elements of the French tongue. Humble as it may appear to some, that 
important part of our book forms a complete course of elementary studies, 
answering to the practical knowledge of our mother-tongue which we acquire 
before going to school, and which afterwards proves so beneficial to us in the 
study of its syntax. 

The application of theoretical rules in the construction of sentences, how- 
ever simple they may be, previous to preparatory studies, constitutes such an 
egregious mistake in the teaching of living languages, that we consider our- 
selves fully justified in asserting that any attempt to arrange or combine 
words, previous to memorizing or mastering the first part of our method, will 
prove futile either to teacher or pupil. Therefore, enticing as it may appear 
at first view, the idea of acquiring at once the practice of words and rules is, 
in our opinion and in that of many others, too complex and preposterous to be 
looked upon as practicable. By those seductive means misguided learners, it 
is true, may master methods which adopt such a theory ; but they can never 
master languages. To be able to speak fluently or Jto construct correct sen- 
tences, presupposes two indispensable acquisitions not possessed by such 
learners : first, the knowledge of words or general principles of languages in 
study : second, the knowledge of the precepts and rules governing the arrange- 
ment of those rudiments of speech. 

To demonstrate the inanity of such " practical" systems, condemned already 
by public opinion, and known only by their repeated failures, we select, from 
a multitude of the same kind, this fragment as an example : 
% Qui a le pain ? 

According to the methods under consideration, the only practice is for the 
eye to look in the repertory for corresponding English words ; that of the hand, 
to write them in the order in which they are written in French, without regard 

17 



188 



GRAMMAR. 



to their nature or properties. Therefore, it is through mechanical means only 
that the signification of the sentence : Qui a le pain ? Who has the bread ? is 
made known to the learner, who has not even the choice of combining words. 

Want of success is the natural result of methods which neglect to teach prin- 
ciples, and commence studies with the syntax or construction of sentences, 
without preliminary exercises on words or general principles. Opposed to 
nature's teachings, such systems are of course false in principle. 

On the contrary, if pupils be what our system makes them at this stage 
of tuition, — viz., masters of the rudiments of languages in study, — this simplo 
sentence, Qui a le pain ? becomes at once a broad field for practical compo- 
sition. 

With the help of their intellectual faculties, they will say : 

Affirmatively, present indicative : J'ai le pain, l'eau, le vin. 
Negatively, " id. " Je n'ai pas le pain, ni l'eau, ni la viande. 

Interrogatively id. " Ai-je le pain ? ai-je l'eau ? ai-je la viande? 

" negatively id. " N'ai-je pas le pain ?n'ai-je pas l'eau ?n'ai-je 

pas la viande ? 
J'ai eu le pain, je n'ai pas eu le pain, etc. 
Vous avez les pains ; avez-vous les pains ? 
Vous avez les bons pains ; avez-vous les 
bons pains? 

Going thus through every mode, tense, or person of every verb, modifying 
substantives by adjectives, etc. etc. 

We do not think it necessary here to say any more on this subject, which 
we consider very important in the study of modern languages. With the 
exception of a few remarks on some discrepancies between the English and 
French syntax, or some idioms peculiar to the French tongue, we shall in the 
following part of our work be the interpreters of Noel and ChapsaTs gram- 
mar, adopted by the French University. Having stood the test of half a 
century's practice, we take that eminently classic French text-book as 
guarantee for our good teaching, trusting to the true friends of progress in 
studies for support in our wwk of reform. 



To express a past, 

Changing number and person, 

Adding a qualifying adjective, 



Table of Numeral Adjectives (360). 



Tin, une, Cardinal (361), 


1 


deux, 


2 


trois, 


3 


quatre, 


4 


cinq, 


5 


six, 


6 


sept, 


7 


huit, 


.8 


neuf, 


9 


dix, 


10 


onze, 


11 


douze, 


12 



Premier, premiere, Ordinal (362), 1st. 

deuxieme (434), 2d. 

troisieme, 3d. 

quatrieme, 4th. 

cinquieme, 5th. 

sixieme, 6th. 

septieme, 7th. 

huitieme, 8th. 

neuvieme, 9th. 

dixieme, 10th. 

onzieme (313, 368), 11th. 

douziSme, 12th. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



189 



treize, 


13 


treizieme, 


13th. 


quatorze, 


14 


quatorzieine, 


14th. 


quinze, 


15 


quinzieme, 


15th. 


seize, 


16 


seizieme, 


16th. 


dix-sept (448), 


17 


dix-septieme, 


17th. 


dix-huit, 


18 


dix-huitieme, 


18th. 


dix-neuf, 


19 


dix-neuvieme, 


19th. 


vingt, 


20 


vingtieme, 


20th. 


vingt et un, 


21 


vingt et unieme, 


21st. 


vingt-deux, etc., 


22 


vingt-deuxidme, etc., 


22d. 


trente, 


30 


trentieme, 


30th. 


trente et un (449), 


31 


trente et unieme, 


31st. 


trente-deux (448), etc., 


32 


trente-deuxieme, etc., 


32d. 


quarante, 


40 


quarantieme, 


40th. 


quarante et un, 


41 


quarante et unieme, 


41st. 


quarante-deux, etc., 


42 


quarante deuxieme, etc., 


42d. 


cinquante, 


50 


cinquantieme, 


50th. 


cinquante et un, 


51 


cinquante et unieme, 


51st. 


cinquante-deux, etc., 


52 


cinquante r deuxieme, etc., 


52d. 


soixante, 


60 


soixantieme, 


60th. 


soixante ct un, etc., 


61 


soixante et unieme, 


61st. 


soixante-dix or septante, 


70 


soixante-dixieme or septantieme. 


70th. 


eoixante-onze or septante et un, 


71 


soixante-onzieme or septante et 





soixante-douze or septante-deux, 72 

soixante-treize or septante-trois, 73 

soixante-quatorze or septante 

quatre, 74 

soixante-quinze or septante-cinq, 75 

soixante-seize or septante-six, 76 

soixante-dix-sept or septante-sept, 77 

soixante-dix-huit or septante-huit, 

etc., 78 

quatre-vingt (449) 80 

quatre-vingt-un, 81 

quatre-vingt-deux, etc., 82 

quatre-vingt-dix or nonftnte, 90 

quatre-vingt-onze or nonanteet un, 91 

quatre-vingt-douze or nonante- 

deux, etc., 92 

cent, 100 

cent-un (449), 101 

mille, etc., 1000 



unieme, 71st. 

soixante-douzieme or septante- 

deuxieme, 72d. 

soixante-treizieme or septante- 

troisieme, 73d. 

soixante-quatorzieme or septante- 

quatrieme, 74th. 

soixante-quinzieme or septante- 

cinquieme, 75th. 

soixante-seizieme or septante- 

sixieme, 76th. 

soixante-dix-septieme or septante- 

septieme, 77th. 

soixante-dix-huitieme or septante- 

huitieme, etc., 78th. 

quatrte-vingtieme, 80th. 

quatre-vingt-unieme, 81st. 

quatre-vingt-deuxieme, 82d. 

quatre-vingt-dixieme or nonan- 

tieme, 90 th. 

quatre-vingt-onzi^me or nonante 

et unieme, 91st. 

quatre-vingt-douzieme or nonante 

deuxieme, etc., 92d. 

centieme, 100th. 

cent-unieme, 101st. 

millieme, 1000th. 



190 GRAMMAR. 



General Theories ox Verbs and their Practical Study. 

Pronouns used to conjugate verbs are three in number. 

{1st } ( Je is elided before vowels or h mute (23), ( Nous, 

2d \ person \ Tu Plural \ Vous, 

3d J (II, elle (Us, elles. 

They stand for subjects in sentences (21). 

Remark. — The pronouns nous, vous, we, you, first and second per- 
sons plural, may be used in the place of je, tu, 1, thou, pronouns of 
the first and second persons singular (633, 1210). 



FIRST EXERCISE. 

In the present indicative of the auxiliary avoir, to have ; 

rr\, a fJe(23) I answer to fai. rp, (Nous "} ( ons. 

The ^Tu [ the \ as. The \ Vous LnswJ ez. 

pronouns 1 n ^ Qn J inflexions 1 * pronouns 1 « eUeg j nsw ' 1 ^ 



PRACTICE. 
According to the preceding theory, guided by personal pronouns, 
let pupils construct the present indicative of avoir, to have, on the 
following models : 



r Tu H, elle, on Je 

Singular: < Je ....' Tu Tu . 



fTu 
1 Je 



, elle, on Je II, elle, on . 

fVous lis, elles Nous 

Plural: -J Nous Vous Vous 

(lis, elles Nous lis, elles ... 



■ Guided by inflexions, let them construct the^same tense with the 
addition of personal pronouns. 



ai a 

Singular:^ a k ai 

as as 



■■{: 



ont ez ons 

Plural: ^ ons ons ez 

ez ont ont 



Remark. — In the first exercise, learners are to fill up the blank 
left after pronouns with the person of the French tense, indicating 
on their copy, in English, mode, gender, number, and tense. In the 
second, on the contrary, they are only to add proper personal 
pronouns to the verb. 



EXERCISES. 191 

Imperfect of the Indicative. 

m, [Je 1 answer to ") ais. Nous *j fions. 

6 i Tu >• the >ais. Vous > answ. < iez. 

pronouns ^ ^ ^ Qn j inflexions J ait Ils ^ elles J (^ aient . 

Those endings of the imperfect are invariably the same in all 
sorts of French verbs. 

The practice suggested for the present indicative must be carried 
through every mode and tense, observing the rule of elision when 
necessary. 

Ex.: 

J'ai, j'avais, j'aurai eu, I have, I had, I shall or will have. 

Past Definite. 

m, ( Je "J answer to f eus. Nous ") ( eumes (434). 

e \ Tu >• the -J eus. Vous \ answ. \ eutes. 

P ronoun8 (ll.elle,onJ inflexions (eut. lis, elles J (e^rent. 
See paradigm. 

Remark. — When the first and second persons of tenses are inflected 
with s in the singular, the third person ends with t (122). 

Having no other inflexions than those of the auxiliaries they 
take, and that of their own participles, verbs in compound tenses 
do not require explanatory examples. We would, nevertheless, ad- 
vise teachers to have pupils learn those tenses on the same principles 
indicated for simple ones. 

See resume of the 2d Lesson. 

SECOND EXERCISE. 

Simple Future. 



f Je ") answer to frai. Nous ^ Trons. *) 

sTu > the i ras. Vous > answ. -J rez. >■ 

( 11, elle, on J inflexions ( ras. lis, elles J ( ront. J 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 

T i f Je *) answer to frais. Nous *) f rions. ") G 

™™n«i Tu f the \ rais - Vous h answ J riez. °J! 

.onouns ^ ^ ^ Qn j inflexions (^ rait (122 ). n s , e lles J ( raient. J l6Z * 

See r6sum6 of the 3d Lesson, same practice. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Aie, ayons, ayez, Have (thou), let us have, have (you). 

In that mode, pronouns subjects are understood in French. 

17* 



192 GRAMMAR. 

THIRD EXERCISE. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present or Future. 

i uo ") answer to faie (122). Nous ") (yons. 

' Tu > the i aies. Vous > answ. < yez. 



fJe 

dsr. 



p n u ^ -^ e jj e ^ Qn j inflexions ^ ait. lis, elles J ( ient. 

See 139 and paradigm. 

In this tense, the inflexions for present or future in the governing 

verbs, are: 

Present. II faut que j'aie, que tu aies, etc. 

Future. II faudra que j'aie, que tu aies, etc. 



The pronouns : 



Imperfect. 



Je ") amM . .^ feusse. i Nous "j (eussiona. 

m f answer to the ] -rr 

Tu r • a • i eusses. Vous > answer to < eusstez. 

Il,elle,onJ mnexions (©at (434). I lis, elles J (eussen*. 

See paradigm and 129. 

The observation made on compound tenses of the indicative mode 
will apply to those of the subjunctive and infinitive, which must be 
familiar to pupils. See r6sum6 of the 4th Lesson, etc. 

FOURTH EXERCISE. 

In the present of the indicative of the auxiliary, §tre, to be. 

The pronouns : 

Nous ^ ( sommes, . 



T ^ | answer to the j ^ 1S * 

Il,elle,onj inflexions j eS i. 



Vous > answer to -j §tes. 

lis, elles J ( sont. 



See paradigm. 

Imperfect. 
The pronouns : 



Nous 1 r etions. 

Vous > answer to < etiez. 

Us, elles J ( etaient. 



Je } answer to the f |^- 

Il,elle,onJ ™ & *™™ {etait! 
See paradigm. 

Comparing those endings with the same in the corresponding tense 
of avoir, to have, being spelled the same, naturally pupils must be 
shown that they possess the same sound. As we have remarked, it 
is by oral practice on the repeated sounds produced in verbs by mode, 
tenses, persons, or numbers, that learners will attain a good French 
pronunciation. 



EXERCISES. 193 

Past Definite. 



The pronouns : 



Nous } ( fumes. 

Vous > answer to < futes. 

lis, elles J t furent 



T e I answer to the J f u ' 

i u „ [ inflexions 1 VT 

II, elle, on J (^ fut. 

See 434 and paradigm. 

Again we may remark the analogy of sounds in this tense and the 
same tense of avoir, to have, both offering fair occasions for prac- 
tice on the French u, that stumbling-block of orthoepic treatises. 
See r6sum6 of the 5th Lesson, same practice. 

FIFTH EXERCISE. 

Simple Future. 



The pronouns : 

f serons. 

serez. 
( seront. 

See 131 and paradigm. 



Tu I an . s 7 r . t0 the \ seras. Vous [ answer to \ s 

H, elle, on J inflexions | ser a. lis, elles J \s 



The pronouns : 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 



T e u !«-«*• MS£ 



Nous ") f serions. 

Vous > answer to -j seriez, 
Us, elles J (^ seraient, 



is. ") . 
. IS 

mt.J rt 



fT n f inflexions J DCA .' 

H, elle, on J *"*"' A " (^ serait. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Remark. — Generally, the imperative mode is formed from the pre- 
sent indicative. To be, etre, is an exception (134). Its three persons 
in that mode bear no resemblance to those of the indicative. They 
are: 

Sois, Be (thou). 

Soyons, Let us be. 

Soyez, Be you. 

See resume" of our 6th Lesson, same practice. 

SIXTH EXERCISE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present or Future. 
The pronouns : 

Nous 1 f soyons. 



T e I answer to the 

III elle, on j "*«*<»■ 
See paradigm. 



Vous > answer to -j soyez. 

lis, elles J ( soient. 



194 GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect. 
The pronouns : 

Je ) an ^ fl w rt +i, fl f fusse ' I ^ ous ) (fussions. 

m [ answer to tne ] r t- 1 /. 

Tu }■ . floT . a ^fusses. v ous J- answer to •{ fussiez. 

n,elle,onJ mnexlon3 (f at (434). I lis, elles J (fussent 

See paradigm. 
See resume^ of our 7th Lesson, same practice. 



MODEL OF EXERCISES FOR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGA- 
TION, ENDING IN EE. 

General Theory on Verbs of the First Conjugation. 

In the first conjugation, every verb has the first and third persons 

singular of the present indicative alike, each ending in e mute. 
The second person singular of that tense takes s (121). 
Ex.: 

J'aime, tu aimes, I love, thou lovest. 

Like the other conjugations, the three persons plural of that tense 
end in oris, ez, ent (124). In the four regular or irregular con- 
jugations, the endings of the imperfect of that mode (125) are: 
Singular, a is, ais, ait. Plural, ions, iez, aient. 

The inflexions of that conjugation for the past determinate (127), 
or definite are : 

Singular, ai, at Plural, times, ates, erent. 

"Whatever their conjugations, the endings of futures (131) are: 

igular, rai, ras, ras. Plural, rons, rez, ronU 

Invariably, conditional endings in the four conjugations (132) 
are: 

Singular, rais, rais, rait. Plural, rions, riez, r aient. 

Formed from the present indicative, in its three persons the im- 
perative takes the inflexions of that tense, dropping the personal 
pronouns, and s in the second person singular (133). 

Subjunctives, present or future, in the four conjugations (139), 
are: 

Singular, e, e#, e. Plural, ton*, iez, ent. 

In that mode, the inflexions of the imperfect (141) are: 
Singular, asse, asses, dt. Plural, assions, assiez, assent. 



EXERCISES 



195 



Practice. 
Guided by the foregoing principles, learners may construct any 
given verb of" the first conjugation on the following indications. See 
page 82. 

SEYEXTH EXERCISE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Construction suggested by pronouns.* 

H, elle, on ' 

Place for 

the persons 

of verbs in 

French. 



The same suggested by inflexions. 



Parsing indicating 
mode, tense, person, 
gender, and number; 
written in English 
during the first year 
of study, and after- 
wards written in 
French. 
Remark. — This tense is primitive in its three persons singular 
(119 bis), derivative in its three persons plural (116). 



Je 

lis, elle s 

Vous 

Tu 

Nous 



Place for 
the mean- 
ing of 
verbs in 
English. 



Place 


ons 


for the 


e 


stems - 
of 


ent 


verbs. 


es 




I e J 



Imperfect. 



aient. 

ais. 

ions. 

ais. 

iez. 

ait. 



125. 



Je 

Vous 

H, elle, on 

Nous 

Tu 

lis, elles 

This tense is a derivative from the present participle (117). 

Remark. — In tenses where inflexions are the same in two per- 
sons, the choice of the first pronoun determines the person of the last. 
Ex. : Tu aim-aw. In this case, the second ending ais is a first per- 
son. Ex.: ePaim-ats. 

Past Definite. 



Je (23) 

Vous 

II, elle, on %.. 

Tu 

NOU3 

Us, elles 



a. 

ames. 

as. 

ai. 

ates. 

erent. 



127. 



This tense is primitive (113). See resume of the 8th Lesson, same 
practice. 



* Passing successively from the first pronoun to the last, let pupils find the 
proper inflexions on the opposite column, and vice versa. We suggest this 
mode of tuition as preparatory exercise. 



196 



GRAMMAR. 



EIGHTH EXERCISE. 

Simple Future. 



eront. 

erai. 

erez. 

eras. 

erons. 

era. 



}■ 131. 



Tu 

lis, elles 

Je 

Vous 

II, elle, on 

Nous 

This tense is a derivative from the present infinitive (115). 

Remark. — To avoid routine or mechanical memorizing, do not allow 
learners to conjugate verbs in the order of our paradigms, until they 
can easily find pronouns subjects by means of inflexions, or can re- 
call inflexions by means of pronouns. 

Verbs of this conjugation take e in the ending of that tense and 
conditional. See page 208. 



Future Anterior. 



aime.* 



II. elle, on 

Je 

Nous 

Tu 

Us, elles 

Vous 

Derivative tense from the future of the auxiliary avoir, to have, 
and the past participle of aimer, to love (119). 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 



ras 

rons 

rai 

rez 

ra 

ront 



Present. 



Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

Us, elles 

Tu 

Je 



enez. 

erais. 

erions. 

erais. 

eraient. 

erait. 



Y 132. 



This tense is a derivative from the present infinitive (115). 

In verbs of this conjugation, such as rouiller, brouiller, chatoutller, 
etc., we find analogous sounds to those of the following substantives: 
houille, grenouille, patrouille, citrouille, coal, frog, patrol, pumpkin, 
etc. 



* In participles belonging to the impersonal mode of the infinitive (50), in- 
flexions in compound tenses fall -on the auxiliary; except in case of agree- 
ment of past participles with the direct complement (777). 

Speaking of a letter, we will say : 

L'ayant recue nous repondimes. Having received it we answered. 



EXERCISES. 



197 



Past. 



Vous 

II, elle, on 

Je 

lis, elles 

Tu 

Nous 



Derivative tense (119). 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Subjects are understood in 
this mode. 



nons 

rais 

rait 

rais 

raient 

riez 



- aime. 



J ons. J 



133. 



Derivative tense (119 bis). See the resume of the 9th Lesson. 



XIXTH EXERCISE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present or Future. 



To express 

necessity, 

II faut 

ou 

il faudra que 



Derivative tense (117). 



Je 




ions 


Vous 




e. 


H, elle 




iez. 


Nous 




e. 


Tu 




ent. 


lis, elles 




es. 



[ 139. 



Imperfect. 



To express 


Tu 


will, 


Nous 


H fallait 


11, elle 


ou 


Vous 


il faudrait 


lis, elles 


que 


Je 



at. 

asse. 

assions. 

assent. 

asses. 

assiez. 



- 141. 



Derivative tense (120). See resume" of the 10th Lesson. 

To form the past tenses of the subjunctive mode, use the past par- 
ticiple of verbs to be conjugated, and the present subjunctive of the 
auxiliary avoir, to have, for the past; the imperfect for the pluperfect. 
Verbs in the principal proposition must always be in the indicative 
mode. 



Ex. 



II faut que/aVe aime, 
II fallait que feusse aime, 



I must have loved. 

It teas necessary that I had loved. 



f melasse, carcasse, becasse, is found the same sound of asse. 

In the words < passion, nation, emulation, etc., those of assions. 

( acier, macier, epicier, etc., those of assiez; 



198 



GRAMMAR. 



remembering that the final t is silent when followed by a word be- 
ginning with a Towel. Final consonants always blend with vowels 
following. Ex.: becass^ agile is sounded becea sagile ; past 
ardentes (983), passion sardentes. 



MODEL OF EXERCL-: 

JUGATIOX, E^DES'G EN" IB. 

35 or the Seco>~d Co>~JUGATK >'. 

In those verbs the first and second persons of the present indica- 
tive, spelled the same, end invariaKj in 5 121 . The third per ; 
singular of that tense is always inflected with t. Following the 
general rule, the three persons plural of that tense end in ons, 
ez, erU (124). The imperfect of that mode, it has been remarked, 
tmkea the mm izz-xiizs in the four conjugations 125 . The 
peculiar inflexions taken by the past determinate in this conjuga- 
tion are : is. is, it. for the singular, answering in form to the same of 
the present indicative. The plural inflexions of that tense are : imcs, 
Ves, wad (128), inflexions taken by some verbs of the third and 
fourth conjugations. The future and conditional follow the general 
rule: rcti, ras, ra, rtms, rez, ront, are the inflexions of the first (131) ; 
raisj rais, rail, rions. rUz, raient, those of the last (132). The im- 
perative derives its inflexions from the present indicative (119 bis). 
The inflexions of the present subjunctive are: isse, isseSj «*e. for the 
singular, issions, issieZj issent y for the plural (139). Those of the 
imperfect are: isse, isses, t/, for the singular, issions, issiez, isstnt, 
for the plural (142 . 



TEXTH EXEF 31 



ESDICATITE MODE. 
Construction suggested by pronouns. The same suggested by inflexions. 



Vwm 

y :-» 

Tn 

II, elle. on 



Rbbb ::r 

the persons 
of rerbs in 



Place for 
the mean- 
ing of 



Place for 

the stems of 
ve: 



English, l 
Is this tense derivative or primitive? 



Parsing in - 
mode, b 



EXERCISES. 



199 



Imperfect. 



Vous 

Je 

Nous 

lis, elles 

Tu 

II, elle, on 



issait. 

issiez. 

issions. 

issais. 

issaient. 

issais. 



125. 



Same observation and remark as for the first conjugation, 
this tense primitive? 



Is 



Past Definite. 



Tu 

Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

Je 

lis, elles 



is. 

imes. 

is. 

ites. 

it. 

irent. 



[ 128. 



In the second conjugation some defective verbs take in this tense 
the inflexion ins (130) ; those ending in enir in the present infini- 
tive, such as provenir, contenir, etc., follow the same rule. 

What is the nature of this tense? is it primitive or derivative? 
See resumS of the 11th Lesson. 



ELEVENTH EXERCISE. 



Simple Future. 



131. 



Nous 

Tu 

Je 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 

From what primitive tense is derived the future of the indicative 
mode? 

Future Anterior. 



irai. 

irons. 

ira. 

iras. 

iront. 

irez. 



Vous 

Je 

Nous , 

II, elle, on 

Tu 

lis, elles 

Of what tense are the compound tenses formed ? 
Analogous sounds of fini are found 





rons 

ra 

rez 

rai 

ront 

ras 






fini 




■ (119). 









.in \ 



18 



Ecurie, boulli, bouillie, patrie. 
Joli, jolie, petit. 
Symetrie, roti, r&tie, etc. 



200 



GRAMMAR. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 



132. 



Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Tu 

Je 

The same syllables form the endings of this tense, in the four 

conjugations, regular or irregular. 

Is this tense primitive or derivative ? 



irais. 

irions. 

irait. 

irais. 

iraient. 

iriez. 



Past. 



Vous 

II, elle, on 

Je 

lis, elles 

Tu 

Nous 



nons 




rait 




nez 


L fini 


rais 


[ (H9). 


raient 




rais 





How do you form this tense ? 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 



") issez. "J 

> issons. V 133. 

J is. J 



No pronouns subjects. 

Is this tense primitive? See resume of the 12th Lesson. 

TWELFTH EXERCISE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present or Future. 
J'ordonne oU f ordonnerai que (see remark, 737). 

Je , 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Nous 

Tu 

II, elle, on 



isse. 

issions. 

isses. 

issiez. 

isse. 

issent. 



139. 



Use in the first proposition j'ordonne or j'ordonnerai que, to express com- 
mand. 

What tense forms the present subjunctive? 



142. 



Impei 
J'ordonnais oufordonnerais que 


IFECT. 


it. 


Je 




isses. 






isse. 






' issiez. 


Tu 




issions. 


11, elle, on 




issent. 



EXERCISES. 



201 



Remark. — Verbs of the second conjugation ending in enir, having 
their past definite inflected in ins, will of course in that tense 
end in insse (12C, 144). 

Is this tense primitive or derivative? Same practice. 

See the resum6 of our 13th Lesson. 



MODEL OF EXERCISES FOR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGA- 
TION, IN OIB. 

General Theory ox Verbs of the Third Conjugation. 

The first and second persons of the present indicative, in that 
conjugation, take the inflexions. Je reqois, tu reqois; je vois, tu 
vois. Therefore, according to general rule, for this conjugation t 
must inflect the third person singular (122). Verbs of the third 
conjugation in the third person plural change (117) evant into oivent; 
such are recevoir, concevoir, apercevoir, etc. The imperfect of that 
mode, according to the general rule, has the inflexions of that 
tense (125). Those of the past determinate are: us, us, ut for the 
singular, times, utes, eurent for the plural (129), endings used also in 
some verbs of the second and fourth conjugations. The future of the 
indicative and conditional modes take the inflexions peculiar to them 
(131, 132). The imperative takes the inflexions of the present indi- 
cative, and drops the personal pronouns subjects (133). The present 
subjunctive follows the general rule (139), and changes evant into 
oivent (117). Being a derivative from the past definite, the imper- 
fect of that mode requires the inflexions usses, usses, (it, for the 
singular, eussions, eussiez, eussent for the plural (143). 



PRACTICE. 

THIRTEENTH EXERCISE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present. 

Construction suggested by pronouns. The same suggested by inflexions. 



Je 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Nous 

Tu 

II, elle, on 



Ce temps est-il primitif ou deriv6 ? 



oit. 

ois. 

evons. 

ois. 

oivent. 

evez. 



117. 



202 



GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 



Vous 

Je 

Nous 

lis, elles 

Tu 

II, elle, on 



evaient. 

evais. 

evions. 

evais. 

eviez. 

evait. 



V125. 



Quel est le temps primitif qui forme Fimparfait de l'indicatif? 



Tu 


Past D 


EFINITE. 


ut. 


Nous 




us. 


11, elle, on 




times. 


Vous 






Je 




us. 


lis, elles 




utes, 



129. 



Le passe determine est-il un temps primitif ou derive ? 

Remark. — In following the hitherto untrodden path indicated by 
the foregoing exercises, the pupil will find the study of French 
verbs much simplified, at the same time that a thorough knowledge 
of them is imparted. 

See resume of our 15th Lesson, — same practice. 



FOURTEENTH EXERCISE. 



Nous 


Simple 


Future. 

1 


evras. 


Tu 




evrons. 


Je 




evra. 


11, elle, on 




' evrez. 


Vous 




evrai. 


lis, elles 




evront. 



I 131. 



Remark. — The endings of this tense and conditional in this and 
the first conjugation receive an additional e, which is dropped in the 
same tenses of the second and third. See p. 208. 



Ex.: 



J'aim erai, j'aim erais. 
Je fin irai, je fin irais. 



Je rec evrai, j* rec evrais. 
Je ren drai, je rendrais. 



Quel est le temps primitif qui compose le futur simple ? 



EXERCISES. 



203 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 



Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Tu 

Je 

Ce temps est-il primitif ou derive ? 



evriez. 

evrais. 

evrions. 

evrait. 

evraient. 

evrais. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



No personal pronouns. 



132. 



( ") evons. ) 

1 Uis. i 133. 

( J evez. J 



Quel est le temps primitif de ce mode ? 
See our resume of the 16th Lesson, — same practice. 
Model of phrases which may be required from pupils at this stage 
of tuition: — 

Je chante un hymne. Nous chantons une jolie chanson. Nous recevons une 
longue lettre. Vous faites votre devoir. Vous voyez cet homme et son 
cheval. Le voyez-vous? Les apercevez-vous ? Hier vous vites mon pere 
et ma mere. Cette dame viendra nous voir. Venez-nous parler ? Don- 
nez-le. Donnez-le-leur, etc. 

Graduated compositions will improve learners; translations, ex- 
perience tells us, narrow their intellect. 



FIFTEENTH EXERCISE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present or Future. 
To express hope, 
II espere ou il esplrera que (893). 

Je 

Vous 

II, elle, on 

Nous 

Tu 

lis, elles 

■ Comment est compose ce temps derive ? 

Imperfect. 
11 ezperait ou espereraxt que 

Tu , 

Nous . ... 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Je 

Ce temps est-il primitif ou derive* ? 

See the r£sum6 of our 17th Lesson, — same practice 



oives. 




oive. 




evions. 


118, 


oive. 


139. 


oivent. 




eviez. 





ussent. 

ut. 

ussions. 

usses. 

usse. 

ussiez. 



yu3. 



204 



GRAMMAR. 



MODEL OF EXERCISES FOR VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJU- 
GATION, ENDING IN RE. 

General Theory on Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. 
Amongst verbs of this conjugation, some in the singular of the 
present indicative take the inflexions ds, ds, d, others — amongst 
them joindre, to join — take in the same persons s, s, t. Such are 
verbs ending in the present infinitive in indre or soudre, as 
peindre, craindre, joindre, absoudre, re'soudre, etc. Their endings 
in the third person are peint, craint, joint, absout, risout, etc. 
Therefore, they follow in this particular the general rule (122). 
No remark is to be made on the imperfect of that mode (125). The 
inflexions of the past definite are is, is, it, for singular, imes, 
ties, irent, for plural (122, 128). No remarks on futures, conditionals, 
imperatives, or present subjunctives. The inflexions of the imper- 
fect of the last mode are, isses, isses, it, for singular, issions, issiez, 
is sent for plural (142). 

PRACTICE. 

SIXTEENTH EXERCISE. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present. 
Construction suggested by pronouns. The same, suggested by inflexions. 



Je I ds or s. 

Vous U 

II, elle, on • ons. 

Nous ds or s. 

Tu ent. 

lis, elles ., L ez(229). J 

Ask the same questions as in preceding exercises. 
Imperfect. 

Tu f ait. 

Nous ais. 

II, elle, on J ions. 

Vous " ais. 

lis, elles aient. 

Je [ iez. 



122, 123. 



125,249. 



Past Definite. 



Je 

Vous 

II, elle, on 

Nous 

lis, elles 

Tu 



is. 

imes. 

it. 

is. 

irent. 

ites. 



[ 128. 



See resum6 of our 18th Lesson, — same practice. 



EXERCISES. 



205 



Accustom learners to use pronouns for complements of those verbs, 

either direct or indirect 

Ex.: 

Je le prends, je le lui prends, je le leur prends, je les leur ai pris, etc. 
Je le peins, est-ce que je le peins ? le peins-tu ? il le peint, le peint-il ? 
Je t'ai pris, je ne t'ai pas pris, t'ai-je pris ? (443, 444). 



SEVENTEENTH EXERCISE. 

Simple Future. 



Nous 

Tu 

Je 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 



Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

lis, elles 

Tu 

Je 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 



rons. 

ra. 

rez. 

ras. 

rai. 

ront. 



rait. 

rais. 

rions. 

raient. 

rais. 

riez. 



131. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

f f ez. 

No pronouns subjects (41), -l «j ons. 

See our re'sume' of the 19th Lesson, — same practice. 

EIGHTEENTH EXERCISE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present or Future. 
To express fear, 
II craint ou il craindrait que 

Nous 

II, elle, on 

Vous 

Us, elles 

Je 

Tu 



132. 



133. 



e. 

ions. 
es. 
iez. 
e. 

ent. 



^139. 



Remark. — Xe is used idiomatically in French with craindre, 
apprehender, etc., to fear, to apprehend, etc. (817), and the meaning 
is not negative.' Ne is placed after the subject. 

Ex.: 

II craint que je ne sorte. 



206 GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect. 
77 craignait oil i7 craxndrait que 
lis, elles 




Tu 




issions 


Nous 




it. 


11, elle, on 


i 


isse. 


Je 




issent. 


Vous 




issiez. 



>*U4. 



To render the meaning negative, add pas after the verb. 

Ex.: 

II ne craignait pas de sortir. 

See r6sum6 of our 20th Lesson, — same practice. 



XIXETEEXTH EXERCISE. 

On interrogative forms in verbs of the four conjugations, where 
learners have to add nominative pronouns, or use the interrogative 
form: est-ce que, do If (167). 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



To love, 



Present. 

to finish, 



Est-ce que 
j'aime? or 



Aim 



es 
ons 

!(1S4) 

ez 

ent 



Fin 



is 

issons 

issez 

is 

issent 

it 



Rec 



to receive, 

[ oivent(439) 
ois 

evons 
oit 
ois 
evez 



to render or 
return a thing. 

( 8 (ISO). 

ons 

(seep. 
ez 70.) 
ent 
s 



Rend- 



Remember Rule 181 on the use of the hyphen. 



Est-ce que 
j'aimais? or 



>■ Aim 



'ions 

ais 
ait 
iez 
ais 
aient 



Imperfect. 
'issait 



Fin 



issais 

issaient 

issiez 

issais 

issions 



Rec - 



ex ait 

evais 

eviez 

evions 

evaient 

evais 



Rend 



iez 

ais 

ions 

ait 

ais 

aient 



Accustom pupils to add pronouns complements when using these 
exercises. 



Ex. 



I/aime-je? les aimais-je ? les aimions-nous ? etc. 

Les finissez-vous? les avez-vous fini? les leur finirez-vous? 

Les ont-ils fini? Reeevez-les. Les auront-ils recu ? 



EXERCISES. 



207 



Est-oe que 
j'aimai ? or 



■Aim 



Past Definite. 



Srent 




[it 




times 




' irent 


ai 




is 




us 




is 


ames 
a 


Fin 


ites 
is 


Rec ■ 


utes 
urent 


Rend- 


imes 
is 


ates 




imes 




us 




ites 


as 




irent 




ut 




it 



Past Indefinite. 



Est-ce que 
j'aime? or 



Est-ce que 

j'eus 

aim6? or 



Est-ce que 

j 'avais 

aim£? or 



ai 

avons 

ont 

a 

avez 



eut 

eumes 

eus 

eurent 

eus 

eutes 



avais 

avait 

avions 

avais 

avaient 

aviez 



"3 



ai 




avons 




as 


ev. 


a 


r 3 


avez 
ont 





ai 

avez 

a 

ont 



Past Anterior. 



eus 




eurent 


eut 




eus 


eurent 
eus 




eumes 
eus 


eutes 




eutes 


eumes 




eut 


Pluperfect. 




avions 




aviez 


avait 




avais 


avais 


e^. 


avaient 


avaient 


■ '3 


avais 


aviez 




avions 


avais 




avait 



ont 
ai 


ev* 


as 
avez 


-■8 

© 


avons 


a J 




eumes ' 




eut 


CV. 


eus 
eutes 




eurent 


N 


eus 





avaient ' 




avait 


ev. 


avais 
aviez 


3 
- *G 

a 


avions 


t 


avais 





Ex. of practice : 
As-tu aime" ? ou n'as-tu pas aime ? I/avez-vous aime ? ou ne l'avez-vous pas 

aim6? 
Eus-je raison? ou n'eus-je pas raison ? I/eus-je fait sans votre permission ? 
Avions-nous dit pareille chose ? Ne vous avions-nous pas averti ? (623). 



Est-ce que 

j'aimerai? 

or 



■ Aim- 



SlMPI 


e Future. 








erons 


' iront 


r evra 




r rez 


eras 


iras 


evrons 




rai 


Jin ■ 
era 


l rez Rec ■ 
irons 


evrez 
evrai 


Rend- 


rons 
ras 


eront 


irai 


evront 




ront 


erai 


ira 


t evras 




ra 



Est-ce que 
j'aurai 
aime ? or 



Future Anterior. 



auras 




aurai 




aurez 




auront 




aurons 




aurez 




aurai 




auras 


ev. 


aurai 


N© 


auront 


|£j 


auras 


3 


aurai 


3 


aurez 


\9 


auras 


■ 'a 


auront 


r ©• 
© 


aurons 


© 


aura 


'c3 


aura 




aurons 




aura 


u 


auront 




aurons 




aura 




aurez 





208 



GRAMMAR. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 
Present. 







' erions. 




iriez. 






evrait 






' raient. 




Est-ce que 
j'aimerais? 


a 


erais. 
eriez. 
erais. 




irait. 
irais. 
irions. 




evrions. 

evrais. 

evriez. 


t3 
6 


rions. 

rait. 

rais. 




or 




eraient. 




irais. 




evraient. 


riez. 




* 




erait. 




iraient. 




evrais. 




rais. 






Past. 










auriez 




aurions 




aurais 




aurait 




Est-ce que 


aurais 


CV. 


auriez 




aurions 




aurions 


CV. 


j 'aurais 


aurions 


VOJ 


aurais 


B^ 


aurait 


s 


aurais 




aime? 
or 


aurait 
aurais 


■ a 

"3 


aurait 
auraient 


• '3 


auriez 
auraient 


- o 


auraient 
aurais 






aurai 


ent 




aurais 




aurais 




auriez 





See resume of our 21st Lesson. 



TWENTIETH EXERCISE. 

Wherein are found the endings of the four regular conjugations, 
and the additional letters taken by those inflexions. 



Mode. 



erais 

erais 

erait 

erions 

eriez 

eraient 



irais 

irais 

irait 

irions 

iriez 

iraient 



'5* 


evrais 
evrais 


*ff 


rais 
rais 


H 

O 

Q - 

CO 


evrait 

evrions 

evriez 


o 
O - 


rait 

rions 

riez 




evraient 




raient 



What is that mode, and what are the foregoing tenses? 

Mode. 





' erai 




irai 




evrai 




' rai 


o 

© - 


eras 
era 
erons 


o 

o ■ 

cq 


iras 
ira 
irons 


o 


evras 
evra 
evront 


'5* 

o 
O - 


ras 
ra 
rons 


TH 


erez 


irez 


evrez 


+3 


rez 




eront 




iront 




evront 




( ront 



Same question as before addressed to pupils, either in French or 
English. 

Mode. 



e 




' is 




ois 


es 

e 

ons 


o 

o ■ 

cq 


is 
it 
issons 


it 

© 

o - 

T3 
CO 


ois 
oit 
erons 


ez 
ent 


issez 
issent 


evez 
oivent(117) 





' da 1 




' s 


'5* 

o 

O . 

^3 


ds 
d 
ons 


■ or ■ 


s 
t 

ons 


53 


ez 

ent J 




ez 
ent 



EXERCISES. 



209 



Kemark. — Verbs in indre, having the inflexion t in the third per- 
son present indicative (il craint), drop it to take gne in the plural 
of the same tense, the imperfect of that mode, the past determinate, 
or in the subjunctive mode. 

Ex.: 

Je peins, il peint, nous peignons, vous peignez (241). 

Je peignais, nous peignions (110). 

Je crains, il craint, nous craignons, il faut que nous craignions. 

gnis (128) 

gnis 

gn it 

gnimes 

gnites 

gyiireut 

are of the second 



ai (127) 
as 
a 
ames 



is (128) 
%S 

it 

imes 
ttes 
irent 



*[ 

° 



«s (129) 

MS 
•ft 

times 

utes 

urent 





' iS 1 




•fi 4 


IS 




o 


it 




O J 




[ or i 




imes 




ites 






irent 





erent 
Remark. — Verbs ending in ins in that tense 
conjugation (130). 



ais 

ais 

ait 

ions 

iez 

aient 



r t«sais 
t>sais 
t*«ait 
is*ions 
t'ssiez 
i««aient 



T en 



•ais 
erais 
evait 
evions 
eriez 
eyaient 



ais 




ais 




ait 
ions 


• or - 


iez 




aient 





gn&is 

gn&is 

gnait 

gin ions 

gniez 

<//iaient 



What are the two preceding tenses, and to what mode do they 
belong? Form the imperative according to rule 119 bis. 



Mode. 



e 


t«*e 




owe 






e 






gne 


es - ? 


t*«es 


•5 


ott-es 




•5* 


es 




gnes 


? 6- 

ions 


t*se 
t5«ions 




OU'Q 

euions 







e 
ions 


- or • 


gne 
gnions 


iez «n 


t*«iez 


CO 


eriez 






iez 




<?niez 


ent 


t«*ent 




oiuent 


or ent 


ent 




gnent 


asse (141 


) 


' wse (142) 




' usse (143) 




i*«se (144) 


asses 


o 


isses 


it 

Q - 

cc 


usses 


a 


tase 


at 

assions 

assiez 


it 

Visions 
/as iez 


ut 

ussions* 

u*siez 





it 

tasions 

t'ssiez 


assent 




isse 


at 




««sen 


it 




i 


asent 



Remark. — Verbs ending in insse belong to the 2d conjugation 
(144). They are derivative from the past determinate inflected in 
ins. Let pupils supply the governing verbs. 

What are the two foregoing tenses, and to what mode do they be- 
long? 

Those exercises and re*sum6s are our grounaVork for practice in 
elementary tuition. Susceptible of general application, combined 



210 GRAMMAR. 

with any other part of speech, those r6sum6s on verbs may be used 
as vehicles for composition. 

(1.) Combined with substantives determined by adjectives, pre- 
ceded by one of the forms of the article, they suggest to learners 
simple compositions like the following: 

J'ai le pain, nous n'avons pas le pain, avons-nous le pain? n'avons-nous pas 

le pain? 
Avez-vous ce pain? nous n'avons pas ce pain, n'aviez-vous pas ce pain? 
Nous aurons son pain, nous n'aurons pas son pain, aurons-nous sa plume? 

(2.) Combined with qualified substantives, or using substantives 
for subjects, etc. 

J'aurais eu le bon pain, je n'aurai pas le bon pain, aurons-nous de ce bon 

pain? 
Vous auriez son bon pain et sa bonne viande. Savons-nous pas ^de la mau- 

vaise eau ? Le pain est bon, Bread is good. 

(3.) Joined to pronouns, as direct or indirect complements, or to 
adverbs. 

Je le vois, je les vois, je la vois. Je leur parle. Parlez-Jewr. J' en yiens. 
Nous leur en donnons. Donnez-leur cela. Y allez-vous. Allez-y. Donnez-en. 
Venez-me trouver, allez-lui-en porter, donnez-m'en, portez-Jwi-ew, etc.* 

Acquiring a general knowledge of verbs or gender in inanimate 
substantives, by such suggestive tuition pupils will be enabled, after- 
wards, to make a right application of rules contained in the French 
syntax. To those who have not acquired correct principles, that 
part of the French grammar will always prove a dead letter; 
the syntax of the article, determinative or qualifying adjectives, 
pronouns or participles (281, 331, 306, 358), for agreement in gen- 
der, number, or person, being dependent on substantives. 

As we have remarked, our resumes must be used as foundation for 
exercises till we arrive at the study of the syntax. 



* When verbs have a direct complement and two indirect, place the first 
after verbs and the others before (623-2). 

Nous ferons le reproche de cela 

a lui, 
Je donnerai un peu de cela a 



Nous lui en ferons le reproche, 
Je lui en donnerai un peu, 
II lui en vendra une partie, 



answering • 



lui, 

II vendra une partie de cela a 
lui. 



END OF THE FIRST PART. 



COMPLETE FRENCH COURSE. 



SECOND PART. 



SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER FIRST. 

452. Syntax teaches the proper use and construction of words. 
It determines their inflexions or terminations in propositions, and 
marks their respective places or different offices (1238). 

453. Propositions are enunciations of judgments. When we say : 

Dieu est juste, God is just f 

it is a proposition, because we assert that justice is a quality proper 
to God (20). 

Assertions or affirmations are expressed by the verb, used either 
affirmatively or negatively (26, 31, 1178 bis). Propositions are the 
elements of sentences ; words are the elements of propositions. 

454. There are in sentences as many propositions as those sen- 
tences contain verbs in personal modes (50). Phrase in French 
answers to sentence in English. 

Ex.: 

La defiance blesse ramitiS, le mepris Distrust wounds friendship, contempt 
la tue. kills it. 

In the above sentence there are two verbs in personal moods, 
blesse, tue ; consequently, it contains two propositions. 

19 211 



212 GRAMMAR. 

455* Grammatically considered, propositions have as many parts 
as they 'contain words. Logically, they have only three, — the subject, 
the verb, and the attribute, 

456. Subjects are objects of judgments ; they are the principal 
idea (64). 

Attributes are the mode of being in subjects, the quality we 
consider proper to them (28) ; they represent accessory ideas. 

Verbs connect attributes with subjects (25). They affirm whether 
the qualities expressed by attributes agree or disagree with sub- 
jects. In the above sentence : 

Dieu, God, expresses the being which is the object of the judgment 

rendered ; Dieu is the subject. 
Juste, just, expresses the quality in the subject; juste is the attri- 
bute. 
Est, is, expresses the connection between the attribute and subject; 
est is the verb. 

45*7. Subjects are always represented by substantives, pronouns, 
or infinitives (49, 64, 271, 330, 371). 

Ex.: 

Dieu est bon, il est juste, God is good, lie is just. 

Vivre et mourir, c'est le lot de rhuma- To live and die is the lot of man- 

nit6, kind. 

Le boire lui a fait mal, Drinking did hurt him, 

458. Verbs are always §tre, to be, either distinct, as in this 
sentence, 

La vertu est aimable, Virtue is amiable, 

or combined with the present participle, 

Je lis, tu 6cris, standing for, je suis lisant, tu es gcrivant, / am reading, 
thou art writing, 

expressions used grammatically in English and logically in French. 

459. Attributes are enunciated by qualifying adjectives, present 
or past participles, substantives or pronouns. They indicate the 
mode of existence in the subject (322, 267, 269). 

Le merite est modeste, Merit is modest. 

On le recherche, c. ad. on est recher- They look for him, viz., they are look- 

chant lui, mg for him (69). 

II est estimi, He is esteemed. 

Medire est une iufamie, To slander is an infamy. 

Ces livres sont les miens, These books are mine. 



LOGICAL PARSING. 213 

In the first proposition, the substantive me'rite is the subject (64), 
the adjective modeste, modest, the attribute. 

In the second, the pronoun on is the subject (665), the present par- 
ticiple recherchant the attribute (28). 

In the third, the pronoun il is the subject, the past participle 
estim6 the attribute. 

In the fourth, the infinitive midire is the subject, the substantive 
infamie the attribute. 

In the fifth, the substantive livres is the subject, the pronoun les 
miens the attribute (371, 381). 

460. Besides these three essentially logical parts, there is a 
fourth exclusively grammatical, used only to facilitate the expres- 
sion of thoughts: this is called complement (67). 

461* By logical complement we mean whatever completes the 

signification of subjects or attributes. When we say: 

L'homme avare est un etre malheureux, Hie avaricious man is a miserable 

being, 

L'homme, man t is the subject, 

Est, is, the verb, 

Un etre, a being, attribute. 

Unconnected with the words avare, malheureux, the subject or 
attribute does not convey a perfect sense. In order to give that 
sense, to the first must be added the adjective avare, avaricious, to 
the last (the attribute) the adjective malheureux, miserable. 

Consequently, as the words avare, malheureux, complete the signi- 
fication of the subject and attribute, they are called their comple- 
ments (67), because they limit or explain their mode of existence. 
Adjunct is the name given by some grammarians to logical comple- 
ments. 

462* In the following examples : 

La culture de l'esprit eleve l'homme, Man is raised by the cultivation of his 

mind, 

Culture is the subject, est the verb, ^levant the attribute; the 
words V esprit, Vhomme, remain. 

Query: the cultivation of what? answer: de Pesprit, of the mind. 
Therefore : 

Completing the idea begun by the subject, the words de V esprit 
are its complement. 

Query: raising what? answer: l'homme, man. Completing the 



214 GRAMMAR. 

idea commenced by the attribute, l'komme, man, must be also its 

complement. 

Ex.: 

Je prefere une honorable pauvrete" a, I prefer an honorable poverty to ill- 
une richesse coupable, gotten riches. 

Je suis pr&f6rant, subject, verb, and attribute. 

Query: preferring what? answer: une honorable pauvret6, an 
honorable poverty, is the complement of the attribute. 

Query : preferring to what ? answer : a une richesse coupable, to 
ill-gotten riches, completing the signification of the attribute, must 
be also its complement. 

Ex.: 

Je lui doime ee conseil pour son bon- It is for his advantage I give him that 
heur, advice. 

Je suis donnant, subject, verb, and attribute. 
In this sentence the verb has three complements, each express- 
ing different connections (704) with the subject. 

( giving what? ^ ( Ce conseil, that advice. 

Queries (69)-! giving to whom ? > Answers: < a lui, to hi)n. 

I giving for what ? J ( pour son bonheur, for his happi- 

ness. 
Ex.: 

Celui qui pratique la vertu est un He who practises virtue is a man de~ 
homme quimerite notre estinie, serving our esteem. 

Celui, subject; est, verb; un homme, attribute (459). 

Without the help of the proposition qui pratique la vertu, the sub- 
ject celui is not complete in signification. Therefore, that propo- 
sition (454) must be the complement of that subject. 

Un homme, attribute, presents the same want of meaning without 
the proposition qui me'rite notre estime. For the same reason that 
proposition is the complement of the attribute, un homme, a man. 

463. From these examples we may see that complements of 
subject or attributes may consist: 

1st. Of modifying adjectives, participles, or adverbs (319, 265 bis, 
390). 

2d. Of direct or indirect complements or objects (69, 70). 

3d. Of incidental propositions, either determinative or explana- 
tory (477, 482). 

464. Words relating to complements are parts of those comple- 
ments : therefore in this sentence : 

I/homme constant dans ses principes The man constant in his principles it 
jouit de Festime deshonn6tes-gens, esteemed by honest people. 



LOGICAL PARSING. 215 

the logical complement of the subject is: 

Constant dans ses principes, Constant in his principles, 

that of the attribute : 

De l'estime des honnetes-gens. Esteemed by honest people, 

465. From the foregoing we see that words standing in proposi- 
tions being neither subjects nor attributes, whatever their number, 
are connected with the subjects or attributes which they^miplete. 

466. The verb — etre, to be, we mean (75) — cannot have a com- 
plement (27), because when used as a substantive verb its significa- 
tion is always complete (162). 

When we say: 

Je suis a votre service, I am at your disposition, 

Vous etes dans l'erreur, You are icrong, 

V 

A voire service is not the complement of je suis, I am. 

Dans Ferreur is not the complement of vous §tes, you are. 

A votre service depends on devoue, devoted, the attribute understood 
in the first proposition. 

Dans Verreur, on tombe", fallen, the attribute understood in the 
second. 

467'. Subjects and attributes are simple, or compound; complex, 
or incomplex. 

468* "When expressing single beings or single objects of the same 

species, subjects are called simple (273, 274). 

Ex.: 

La vertu est preferable aux richesses, Virtue is preferable to riches, yet riches 
etcependant les richesses lui sont are often prefer red to virtue. 

sourent preferees, 

469. When representing beings belonging ta different species, 
subjects are called compound (457). 

Ex.: 

La foi, Fesperance et la charite sont Faith, hope, and charity are divine 
des vertus theologales, virtues, 

470. When expressing a single manner of being in subjects, 
attributes are called simple (459). 

Ex.: 

Le ciel est pur, Thomme pense, c. d d. The shy U pure, man thinks, viz., man 
rhomme est pensant, is thinking. 

19* 



216 GRAMMAR. 

.4*1. Allr i lmU M are compound when they express several i 

existence in subje 

Ex.: 
Dieu est juste et tout-puissant, God it Just and powerful. 

4* "2. Subjects or attributes are incomplex when, haying a com- 
io not require complements. 

' Ex.: . 

Le soleil e?T lumineux. la terre tourney The tun is lumimott*. the earth revokes, 
c. a d.j la terre est tournant, tie., is revolving. 

4*3. Sal bIb i a::ributes are complex when one or more eom- 

plenit : heir signification. 

Ex. : 

conscience n'est jamais A bad conscience is newer quieL 
fcraaupdlle, 

La gloire de l'homme consiste dans la Mam's glory is virtue. 
rru, 

5t le premier de nos de- (rod 1 # service is the first of oar duties. 

4*4. W.r.i? ?;:^f::r;^ :.-*:'r-r^:5 ~:::: 5u\;'-?::5 :: ■:::: : :.;:^ 
are parts of those subjects or attributes. 

fn jeune enfant de cette tribu d£posa A young child of that tribe at that 
.i-n/.ri moment laid the offerings am the 

altar, 

the logical subject is : tin jeune enfant de cette tribm; 

al attribute : deposa alors les qffrandes sur Fautd. 

4*5. There are two kinds of propositions (453), principal and 
mddentaL 

4*6. Pritxcipal propositions are independent of all others. 
In the following: 

nil que la vertu est preferable m I believe virtue preferable to emery 

tons : l'homme qui s'en thing ; men deserting it depart 

eearte s 'eloigne toujours du bon- ahvaysfrom happiness, 
hew, 

there are four propositions (454). Two are principal, rii. : 

Je crois, upon which depends the proposition que la vertu est pre- 
ferable a tous les biens. 

L'\ . ■-; :'-: •.;. ;/ .::.. :: . : . ■: : . ; - ■ -:- i_ l_ _: ±r ::':.- y r : ;: :si:::i: :'.,: 
s en ecarte. 

irst principal enunciated is called absolue, i n de pendent or 
absolute ; the last is called relative, dependent. 



LOGICAL PARSING. 217 

477. Incidental propositions are added to other propositions (453) 
to complete their signification. There are two incidental propositions 
in the precedi: _ nee. 

Que la ver les biens, completing the attribute 

Qui s'en e'carte, completing the subject Jiomme. 

478. Words connecting generally incidental propositions with pro- 
positions wanting complements, are relative pronouns or conjunctions 
(655, 419). From this rule must be excepted the conjunctions et, ou, 
ni, mais, announcing only incidental propositions, when followed by 
another conjunction or a relative pronoun. 

479. From the foregoing, we ascertain that : 

1st. Pro] ire generally p. ^hen beginning neither 

with relative pronouns nor conjunctions. 
2d. They are generally incidental when beginning with relative 

pronouns or conjunctions. 

4SO* There are two kinds of incidental propositions, incidental 

and incidental expl '<:.. 

481. To determine the degree in which they complete or change 
the meaning of propositions with which they are connected, incidental 
determinative propositions are added to other propositions. 

In this senten 

Les passions qui font le pins de ravage The most destructive passions are am- 
sont Fambition et 1' avarice, lorn and avarice, 

qui font le plus de ravage is an incidental determinative proposi- 
tion. Should it be dropped, the proposition : les passions sont V am- 
bition et V avarice would present another sense, or rather would have 
an equivocal meaning. 

482. To explain the terms they complete, adding to them some 
accessory idea not absolutely required, incidental explanatory propo- 
sitions are added to otfiers. Their dropping does not alter the sense 
of the principal proposition. 

In the sentence : 

; maladies de Disease of the soul, passions are the 
Fame, Yiennent de notre revolte result of our revolt against reason, 

contre la raison, • 

qui sont les maladies de Vdme is an incidental explanatory propo- 
sition : should we drop it, les passions viennent de notre re'volte contre 



218 GRAMMAR. 

la raison, is a proposition satisfactory to the mind, as significative 
as it was before dropping the incidental proposition. 

In relation to the totality of their component parts, propositions 
may be complete, elliptical, or implicit. 

483. Propositions are complete When they enunciate every term 
necessary to the completion of their meaning, so that no word should 
be wanted in analysis or parsing. 

Ex.: 

L'erreur est la nuit de l'esprit, Error is the night of the mind. 

L'homme vertueux brave Tenvie, A virtuous man contemns envy. 

L'amitie est le baume de l'ame, Friendship is a balm/or the heart, 

484. Propositions are elliptical when some of their component 
parts are understood (854). 

These propositions, 

Soyons vertueux, Let us be virtuous, 

La maison est en cendres. The house is consumed, 

Quand viendrez-vous? Demain, When will you come? To-morrow, 

are elliptical. Answering to: 

yous soyons vertueux, Let us be virtuous. 

La maison est reduite en cendres, The house is reduced to ashes. 

Je viendrai demain, I will come to-morrow. 

{the first proposition the subject is understood nous, we. 
the second the attribute reduite, reduced. 
the third the subject, verb, and attribute, Je viendrai, I will come (458). 

485. Conjunctions, it must not be forgotten, will always announce 
incidental propositions:* therefore such sentences as the following: 

Ex.: 

II l'aime comme son fils, He loves you as a son, 

II viendra ainsi que vous, He will come as you will, 

II croit que vous viendrez, He believes you will come, 

are incidental elliptical in French and English. Que, that, is under- 
stood in the latter language. 

486. Propositions are implicit when they contain subjects, verbs, 
and attributes, without enunciation of those parts. In the follow- 
in£ sentence: 



* In his Method, pp. 204-8, the member of Ann-Arbor calls part of propo- 
sition what is a complete one. In such sentences as : H faut que je vienne, 
there are two verbs in personal modes; therefore, there are two propositions 
» (454), one principal, one incidental. 



LOGICAL PARSING. 219 

Helas! pourquoi ne ni'ont-ils pas Alas! tchy have they not listened tome? 
£coute? 

H61as ! alone forms an implicit proposition. 

It means, J'eii suis fiiche* ! / am sorry for \t ! 

So it is with ah, ha, oh, ouf, fi! or every word expressing pain, 
joy, or surprise (422). Oui, non, jamais, yes, no, never, are also im- 
plicit propositions. 

Ex.: 

Etudierez-vous? Oui, non, jamais, Yes, no, never, 

( Oui, j'etudierai, Yes, I will study. 

Answering to < Non, je n'etudierai pas, No, I will not study. 
( Jamais je n'etudierai, Never will I study. 

Which propositions have for subjects, Je, /—verb, serai, will be — 
attribute, 6tudiant, studying. 

MODELS OF LOGICAL PARSING. 

, 487. 

Le vice est odieux, Vice is odious. 

This proposition is a principal absolute (476). Principal, because 
it expresses the main object of our thought. Absolute or independent, 
because without the aid of complements it has a complete signi- 
fication. 

The subject is vice: simple, expressing a single object (468); in- 
complex, having no complement following it (472). The verb is est, 
is (466). The attribute, odieux: simple, expressing a single manner 
of being in the subject; incomplex, having no complement. 

488. 

Les hommes sont faibles, Men are weak. 

This proposition is a principal absolute. The subject is hommes: 
simple, expressing beings of the same nature; incomplex, having no 
complement. The verb is sont. The attribute, faibles : simple, ex- 
pressing a simple manner of being in the subject; incomplex, having 
no complements. 

489. 

Le merite «t la vertu sont estimes et Merit and virtue are esteemed and 
recherches, sought. 

This proposition is & principal absolute or. independent. 



220 GRAMMAR. 

Its subject is le me'rite et la vertu: compound, expressing objects 
of different natures (469) ; incomplex, having no complement. The 
verb is sont. The attribute, estimis et recherchSs : expressing two 
modes of existence in the subject, it is compound (471) ; incomplex, 
having no complement (472). 

490. 

Les philosophes anciens (348) sont Ancient philosophers are worthy of being 
dignes d'etre connus, knoicn. 

This proposition is principal absolute. The subject is philosophes 
anciens: simple, representing beings of the same species; complex, on 
account of its complement anciens. The verb is sont. The attribute, 
dignes d'etre connus : simple, expressing a single manner of being in 
the subject; complex, on account of the complement dignes d'etre 
connus. 

491. 

Les caracteres de ^alphabet ont €t€ The alphabetical characters have been 
inventes par les Pheniciens, invented by the Phenicians. 

This proposition is a principal absolute. The subject is les carac- 
teres de V alphabet: simple, representing objects of a same nature 
(468). Complex, on account of the complement de Valpliabet (473).- 
The verb is ont 6U. The attribute, invented par les Pheniciens: 
simple, expressing a simple manner of being in the subject; com- 
plex, on account of its complement les Pheniciens. 

492. % 

"Une vie exempte de reproches prepare When exempt from reproaches, life pre- 
a une inort paisible, pares for a peaceable death. 

Principal independent proposition. Subject, une vie exempte de re- 
proches: simple, representing a single object; complex, on account 
of the complement exempte de reproches. The verb is est. The at- 
tribute, pre'parant a une mort paisible: simple, expressing a single 
mode of existence in the subject; complex, on account of the com- 
plement u ne mort paisible. 

493. 

Aimer la patrie est un sentiment To love our country is a natural feeU 
naturel, ing. 

Principal absolute. Subject, — simple, representing a single thing; 
complex, on account of the complement la patrie. The verb is est. 
The attribute, un sentiment naturel: simple, expressing a simple 



LOGICAL PARSING. 221 

mode of existence in the subject; complex, on account of the com- 
plement naturel. 

494. 

Je ni'enfoncai dans un bois sombre, et I penetrated into a dense forest, and / 
j'apercus un vieillard venerable, perceived a venerable old man. 

Je rrienfongai dans un bois sombre, principal absolute proposition. 
The subject is je, — simple incomplex, expressing a single being ahd 
having no complement. The verb is fus. The attribute, m'enfongant 
dans un bois sombre: simple, expressing a simple mannner of being 
in the subject; complex, on account of its complements me, dans un 
bois sombre. 

Et j'apercus un vieillard venerable, And I perceived a venerable old man. 

Principal relative proposition (476) ; because it does not occupy 
the first rank among the principal. The subject is je, — simple in- 
complex, representing a single object. The verb is fus. The at- 
tribute, apercevant un vieillard ve'iifrable: simple, expressing a simple 
manner of being in the subject; complex, on account of the comple- 
ment un vieillard v6n6rable. 

/ 

495. 

H etait pretre d'Apollon, qu'il servait He was a priest of Apollo, serving him 
dans un temple qui etait consacre in a temple consecrated to that 

a ce Dieu, deity. 

This sentence contains three propositions : 

II e^tait pretre d'Apollon, principal absolute. The subject is il, — 
simple infcmplex, representing a single being and having no com- 
plement. The verb is itait. The attribute, pretre d'Apollon: simple, 
representing a single mode of existence in the subject; complex, on 
account of the complement d'Apollon. 

Qu'il servait dans un temple, Serving him in a temple (847). 

Incidental proposition, depending on another proposition to complete 
it. Explanatory, because it elucidates the preceding parts without 
restriction as to the sense (482). The subject is il, — simple incomplex, 
expressing a single being and having no complement. The verb is 
itait. The attribute, servant lui (lui instead of que, him, 71) dans 
un temple: simple, representing a single manner of being in the 
subject; complex, on account of the complements que, dans un 
temple. 

Qui 6tait consacre a ce Dieu (478), Consecrated to that deity. 



222 GRAMMAR. 

Incidental determinative proposition (481), depending on another 
proposition to complete it. Determinative, being indispensable for 
restricting the sense of what precedes. The subject is qui, — simpie 
incomplex, representing a single object and having no complement. 
The verb is 6tait. The attribute, consacr6 d ce Dieu: simple, express- 
ing a simple manner of being in the subject; complex, on account of 
the complement d ce Dieu. 

496. 

J'ignore qui vous a donne* ces conseils, I do not know who gave you such ad' 

vice. 

This sentence contains two propositions : 

J 1 ignore qui vous, etc., principal absolute. Subject je, — simple 
incomplex, expressing a single being and having no complement. 
The verb is suis. The attribute, ignorant qui vous, etc. : simple, ex- 
pressing a simple mode of existence in the subject; complex, on 
account of its complement the proposition qui vous, etc. 
Qui vous a donne" ces conseils (478)? Who gave you such advice? 

Incidental determinative proposition (481), because depending on 
the term of the preceding proposition ignorant, etc., adding an in- 
dispensable idea to the sense, it limits its signification. 

The subject is qui, who, — simple, representing a single object; in- 
complex, having no complement. The verb is a e'U. The attribute, 
donnant: simple, expressing a simple mode of existence in the sub- 
ject; complex, on account of its complements, ces conseils, d vousf ' 

497. Remark. — This change from past participle to present takes 
place in every compound tense (155) in which the auxiliHy avoir is 
used. 

The following propositions : 

II a parle, He has been speaking, 

Nous avons appris, We have been learning, 

Vous auriez lu, You would have been reading, 

are analyzed under the same forms as in English, answering to the 

following in French. 

Ex.: 



Ha etc" parlant, 

Nous avons et6 apprenants, 

Vous auriez ete lisants, 



V26. 



498. The same change from past participles to present also takes 
place with pronominal or reflective verbs, where etre is used with 
the meaning of avoir (95). 



LOGICAL PARSING. 223 

Therefore this proposition* 

lis se sont flattes de reussir, They flattered themselves with success, 

must be analyzed under this form in French: 

lis ont 6te flattant eux de re*ussir. Se standing for eux, pronoun 
of the third person (72). This proposition is a principal absolute. 
The subject is it, — simple incomplex, expressing beings of a same 
species and having no complements. The verb is ont &&- The at- 
tribute, flattant eux de rettssir : simple, expressing a single mode of 
existence in the subject; complex, on account of its complements se, 
de riussir. 

499. 

Honorons Dieu, de qui nous tenons tout, Let us honor God, to whom we owe every 

thing. 

This sentence contains two propositions : 

Honorons Dieu, principal absolute elliptical. Elliptical, because 
one of its terms is understood (484). The subject is nous, — simple 
incomplex, representing a single being and having no complement. 
The verb is soyons. The attribute, Jionorant: simple, expressing a 
simple mode of existence in the subject; complex, on account of its 
complement Dieu. 

De qui nous tenons tout, To whom we owe every thing. 

Incidental explanatory proposition (482). The subject is nous, — 
simple incomplex, conveying ideas of beings of the same nature or 
kind and having no complements. The verb is sommes. The attribute, 
tenant: simple, expressing a simple mode of existence in the subject; 
complex, on account of the complements tout, de qui (473). 

500. 

La maison est en cendres, The house is consumed. 

Principal absolute elliptical. Elliptical, because the attribute 
r4duite is understood. Subject, la maison, — simple incomplex, repre- 
senting a single object and having no complement. The verb is est. 
The attribute, re"duite en cendres : simple, expressing a simple mode 
of existence in the subject; complex, on account of the complement 
en cendres. 



* Fasquel s's and Van Norman's Methods are silent on this essential dis- 
tinction. v 

20 



224 GRAMMAR. 

501. 

Turenne niourut comme un h6ros, Turenne died as a hero. 

Turenne mourut, principal absolute proposition. The subject, is 
Turenne, — simple incomplex, representing a single being and having 
no complement. The verb is fut. The attribute, mourant: simple, 
representing a simple mode of existence in the subject; complex, on 
account of the proposition comme un he'ros, etc. 

Comme un h6ros. Incidental determinative elliptical proposition 
(477, 481, 484), the verb and attribute being understood. The sub- 
ject is un he'ros, — simple incomplex, representing a single being and 
having no complements. The verb is est. The attribute, mourant, 
dying: simple, expressing a simple mode of existence; incomplex, 
having no complement. 

502. 

Qui oserait insulter au malheur, Who would offer an insult to misfortune. 

This elliptical sentence contains two propositions. The first prin- 
cipal absolute is understood. It is je demande. The subject is je, — 
simple incomplex, expressing a single being and having no comple- 
ment. The verb is suis. The attribute, demandant (459) : simple, 
expressing a simple mode of existence in the subject ; complex, on 
account of the proposition qui oserait insulter au malheur, etc. (463). 

503. 

Ah! vous m'avez trompe*, Ah! you have deceived me. 

This elliptical sentence contains two propositions, ah ! principal ab- 
solute implicit proposition, standing for Je suis etonne, I am sur- 
prised. Je is subject, — simple incomplex, expressing a single being 
and having n'„ complement. The verb is suis. The attribute, 6tonn6: 
simple incomplex, representing a simple mode of existence in the 
subject, and having no complement. 

Vous m'avez tromp4, principal relative proposition (476). The 
subject is rows: simple incomplex, representing a single being and 
having no complement. The verb is avez &£ (497). The attribute, 
metrompant: simple, representing a simple mode of existence; com- 
plex, on account of its complement me, standing for moi. 

QUESTIONS. 

452. Quel est Pobjet de la syntaxe? 453. Qu'est-ce qu'un propo- 
sition? 454. Combien peut-il 1 y avoir de propositions dans une 



LOGICAL PARSING. 225 

phrase? 455. Sous leur rapport grammatical combien y a-t-il de 
parties dans une proposition ;,combien y en a-t-il sous leur rapport 
logique? 456. Qu'est-ce que le sujet d'une proposition? 457. Par 
quelle espece de mots ces sujets sont-ils represented? 458. Sous 
quelle forme se presentent les verbes dans les propositions? 459. 
Comment les attributs y sont-ils £nonc£s? 460. Outre ces trois par- 
ties logiques n'y a-t-il pas d'autre terme dans les propositions? 461. 
Qu'entendez-vous par complement logique? 462. Donnez-nous un 
exemple de cela? 463. En quoi consistent d'ordinaire ces comple- 
ments? 464. Comment classez-vous les mots dans une proposition? 
465. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur les mots d'une proposition 
qui ne sont ni sujets ni attributs? 466. Le verbe etre peut-il avoir un 
complement? 467. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur la nature 
des sujets et des attributs? 468. Quand les sujets sont-ils simples? 
469. Quand sont-ils composes? 470. Dans quel cas Fattribut est-il 
simple? 471. Dans quel autre est-il compose? 472. Quand est-ce 
que Fattribut et le sujet sont incomplexes? 473. Quand au contraire 
sont-ils complexes? 474. Quels sont les mots d'une proposition qui 
font partie du sujet ou de Fattribut? 475. Combien y a-t-il de sorte 
de propositions? 476/ Qu'entendez-vous par proposition principale? 
477. Qu'entendez-vous par incidente? 478. Quels sont les mots qui 
relient une proposition incidente k une proposition necessitant un 
complement? 479. A quel signe peut-on reconnaitre qu'une propo- 
sition est principale? 480. Combien y a-t-il d'espeees de propositions 
incidentes? 481. Quel est Femploi des propositions incidentes deter- 
minatives? 482. Quand emploie-t-on les propositions incidentes ex- 
plicatives? 483. Quand est-ce qu'une proposition est complete? 484. 
Quand est-elle elliptique? 485. Qu'annonce toujours la presence 
d'une conjonction dans une phrase? 486. Dans quel cas une propo- 
sition est-elle implicite? 487. Donnez-nous Fanalyse logique de ces 
phrases. Le vice est odieux. 488. Les hommes sont foibles. 489. 
Le mirite et la vertu sont estimis et recherchts. 490. Les philosopJies 
anciens sont dignes d'etre connus. 491. Les caracteres de V alphabet 
furent inventus par les Phe'niciens. 492. Une vie exempte de reproches 
prepare a une mort paisible. 493. Aimer la patrie est un sentiment 
naturel. 494. Je m y enfongai dans un bois sombre et fapergus un 
vieillard ve'ne'rable. 495. II 4tait pretre d'Apollon, qiCil servait dans 
un temple qui e'tait consacre' a ce Dieu. 496. J' ignore qui vous a donne 
ces conceits. 497. Dans quel cas le participe passe se change-t-il en 
participe present? 498. Quel est F autre cas ou ce changement a lieu? 



226 GRAMMAR. 

499. Analysez les phrases suivantes: Honorons Dieu de qui nous 
tenons tout. 500. La maison est en cendres. 501. Turenne mourut 
comme un 7i4ros. 502. Qui oserait insulter au malheurf 503. Ah ! 
vous m'avez trompe'. 

To Teachers. 

During the study of the syntax our practical exercises will consist : 
1st. In translating into French our exercises according to government of 
rules previously laid down. 2d. Translating the same into English after they 
have been corrected.* 3d. Translating the rules of the Grammar and the 
Vicar of Wakefield, into French, with reproduction of rules. 

Acquainting learners with the practical use of rules, such daily practice will 
familiarize their organs with the harmony of French sounds j or teach them 
accuracy in construction and in spontaneous practice, much better than ever 
will be done by the memorizing of forms on conversation or simple transla- 
tions from French into English. 



CHAPTER SECOND. 



Substantive (271). 
Of Gender in some Substantives. 

504. Amour, love, is masculine in the singular and plural. 
Ex.: 

"L'smour filial, l'amour paternel, ' Filial love, paternal love. 

Un excessif amour des richesses, An excessive love for riches. 

L'amour matemel est de tousles amours Maternal love is the only everlasting 

le seul qui soit durable, love. 

Peindrc, sculpter de petite amours, To paint or carve little Cupids. 

505. Except when that word refers to the attachment between 
the sexes. In that case it is masculine in the singular, feminine in 
the plural. 

Ex.: 

Un amour insense, A foolish love. 

Un violent amour, A violent love. 

De/olles amours, Insane affections. 

Remark. — In the preceding examples, in French, adjectives tell, 
what is the gender of the substantives they qualify. 

* See our exercises on false syntax, page 93. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 227 

505 bis. An, annee, year, are synonymous in French. The first 
is masculine, the last feminine. Preceding substantives used inde- 
terminately, the preposition par answers to a in English. 

Ex.: 

L'annee est longue, l'an est bien long, The year is long. 

J" ai mille francs par an, • I have a thousand francs & year. 

Je reyois trois cents francs par mois, I receive three hundred francs & month. 

Remark. — In speaking of age, contrary to English practice, the 
word year must be expressed in French. This remark applies also 
to the word heure, in speaking of time. 

J'ai dix ans, cet homme a vingt I am ten, that man is twenty. 
ans (988), 

The ellipsis of an, ann€e, may take place in incidental proposi- 
tions (484), when those words are expressed in the principal. 

Ex.: 
J'ai vingt ans, mais elle en a trente, / am twenty, but she is thirty. 

Douze heures, } ans ™ rin S to { ilZ' o'clock, } are not used in Frenoh ' 

506. Device, orgue, delight, organ, are masculine in the singular, 

feminine in the plural. 

Ex.: 

Un delice, de grandes delices, A delight, great delights. 

Un bel orgue, de belles orgues, A fine organ, fine organs. 

50 1 ?. Aigle, eagle, is feminine when signifying a national 

standard, or in speaking of the female bird of that name. 

Ex.: 

L'aigle romaine, l'aigle imperiale, The Roman eagle, the imperial eagle. 

1/ aigle est furieuse quand on lui enleve When robbed of her nest, the eagle 
sa couvee, becomes furious. 

508. In all other cases the word is masculine. 
Ex.: 

L'aigle fier et courageux, The proud and courageous eagle. 

Le grand-aigle de la Legion-d'Hon- The great eagle of the Legion of Honor* 

neur,* 

(Test un aigle, He is an eagle. 

In the last example, aigle is used to represent a man of extra- 
ordinary merit or powers. 

* The badge of that knighthood. 

20* 



228 GRAMMAR. 

509* Automne, autumn, the fall, is of both genders: nevertheless 
the masculine is to be preferred, the name of the other seasons 
being of that gender. 

Ex.: 

Un 6te* chaud, un automne pluvieux, A warm summer, a rainy fall, a cold 
un hiver froid, winter. 

When used with reference to produce and fecundity, that word is 

better used in the feminine. 

Ex.: 

L'abondante automne nous prodigue Fruitful autumn lavishes on us her 
ses fruits, products. 

510. Couple, couple, is feminine, when expressing the number 
two, or the fortuitous union of two persons or things. 

Ex.: 

Une couple d'hommes, une couple de A couple of men, a couple of chickens. 
poulets, 

Designating the voluntary union of two beings, linked by affection, 
marriage, or acting under the same impulse, that word is used in the 
masculine. 

Ex.: 

Un couple fiddle, A faithful couple. 

Un couple bien assorti, A well-assorted couple. 

Un couple d'amis, un couple de fripons, A couple of friends, a couple of rogues. 

511. Enfant, child, is masculine when referring to boys and used 
in the singular. 

Ex.: 

Cest un bel enfant, It is a fine boy. 

Feminine when in connection with girls and used in the same 
number. In plural cases it is always masculine : therefore a mother 
having only girls, when speaking of them, will say : 
Tous mes enfants sont vivants,* All my children are alive. 

511 bis. Vivant, during life, used determinately, is an expression 
indeclinable for gender or number. 
Ex.: 

Du vivant de votre fille, du vivant de During the life of your daughter or of 
vos enfants, vous ne pouvez con- your children, you cannot bestow 

c6der ce privilege a ces gens, such favor on those people. 

De leur vivant, ces enfants en ont mal During life those children acted badly. 
agi, 

• The substantives esclave, artiste, domestique, eleve, follow the same rule. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 229 

The compound substantive bon-vivant, a merry fellow, is used in 
the two numbers, but cannot be connected with feminine cases. 
Ex.: 

Cet homme est un bon-Yivant, That man is a merry fellow. 

512. Exemple, example, is always masculine. 

Ex. : 

Un bel exemple d'ecriture, A fine or handsome model for writing. 

II suit les bons exemples que lui ont He follows the good examples given 
donnes ses parents ^901), him by his parents. 

513. Foudre, lightning, used in its proper acceptation as syno- 
nymous with thunderbolt, is feminine. 

Ex.: 

La foudre sillonne les nues, The clouds are furrowed with lightning. 

In poetry or dignified style, the same word is sometimes used in 

the masculine. 

Ex.: 

Etre frappe du foudre, To be thunderstruck. 

Expirer sous ies foudres vengeurs, To expire under avenging thunders. 

In a figurative style, or in the meaning of a large tun or vat, foudre 

is masculine. 

Ex.: 

Un foudre d'eloquence, A great orator. 

Un foudre de guerre, A great warrior. 

Un foudre de vin, A tunfull of wine. 

514. Gens, people, requires the feminine gender for every quali- 
fying adjective preceding it, the masculine for those placed after: 

" Ex. : ■ 

Les vieilles gens sont soupconneux, Old people are suspicious. 

Les mechantes gens, Bad people. 

Les pauvresgens, toutesles mechantes Poor people, all bad people. 
gens, 

Nevertheless, before gens, people, the masculine is used instead of 

the feminine : 

1st. When the adjective tout stands directly before gens : 

Ex.: 

Tous les gens qui pensent bien, tous Well-thinking people, witty people. 
les gens d'esprit, 

2d. When gens is preceded by tout, or by adjectives having but 
one form for the two genders, such as : 
Aimable, brave, honnete. etc. (333), Amiable, gallant, honest, etc. 



230 GRAMMAR. 

Ex. : 
Tous les habiles gens, lea habiles gens, All smart people, smart people. 
Tous les honnetes gens, les honnetes All honest people, honest people. 

gens. 
Tousles pauvres gens, les pauvres gens, All poor people, poor people. 

3d. When gens specially raises in our mind ideas of classes of 
men. which is often the case when followed by the preposition de 
or by su ming a compound expression with that prepo- 

sition (280). 

f Gens-de-lettres, gens-de-robe, Literary men, men of laic. 
Such are: \ Gens-de-guerre, gens-de-mer, Military men, seafaring men. 
( Gens-d'affaires, gens-de-bien, Business-men, good men. 

Ex.: 

■I de vrais gens-de-le:: They are true literary men. 

Quels gens-de-V. What honest people I 

Certains gens-d'affaires, Some busineas-v 

515. Hymne, hymn, is feminine when referring to those sung in 
church 

Ex.: 

Santeul et Coftin ont compose les belles Santeul and Coffin have composed the 
hymnes du breViaire de Paris, beautiful hymns of the Parisian 

breviary. 

Hymne in other case? is always masculine. 

Ex.: 

La Marseillaise est un bel hymne na- The Marseillaise is a beautiful national 

hymn. 

516. Quelque chose, something, is masculine when signifying one 
thing. 

Ex.: 

II a fait quelque chose qui merite d'etre He has done .something deserving of 
blame, c. a. d., une chose qui, etc., blame, viz., one thing, etc. 

It is feminine when answering to whatever be the thing. 
Ex.: 
Quelque chose qu ? il ait dite, on ne l'a Whatever be the thing he said, they 
pas ecoute, did not listen to him. 

Quelque chose answering to rien (925), any thing, is masculine. 
Ex.: x 

Y a-t-il rien de plus mechant qu'elle? is any thing vcorse than she * 

•*\H. Trompette, trumpet, according to its use, takes the two 
gend 

Ex.: 

It is masculine when signifying the player. 
Un trompette de cavalerie, A trumpeter of cavalry. 



SYNTAX -OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 231 

Feminine when referring to the instrument, 
Ex.: 

Ceci est une bonne trompette, This is a good trumpet. 

Remark. — The name of the instrument, in French, is often used 
to represent the player. 

Ex.: 
Ole-Bull est un bon yiolon, Ole Bull is a good fiddler. 

Remark. — Pantomime, pantomime, is feminine, when referring to 
the art ; it is masculine when used with reference to male or female 
performers. 

Ex.: 

Cette pantomime est amusante, That pantomime is ajnusijig. 

Madame B*** est un excellent panto- Madam B*%* is an excellent panto- 

mime, mime. 

Le premier pantomime est malade, The first pantomime-player is sick. 

Mousse, cabin-boy, is masculine. It is feminine in the meaning 

of moss ot foam. 

Ex.: 

Ce petit mousse est un vrai lutin, That little cabin-boy is very mischiev- 

ous. 
La mousse couvre le tronc de ces arbres, The trunks of those trees are covered 

xcith moss. 
Le cidre mousse beaucoup, sa mousse That cider is very sparkling, its foam 
est epaisse, it thick. 

Number in some Substantives (285). 

518. In French, the spelling of proper names ought never to be 
altered for number ; they must be spelled the same in the plural and 
singular (274). 

Ex.: 

L'Espagne s'honore d' avoir donne le Spain exults in having given birth to 

jour aux deux SSnSque, the two Senecas. 

Les deux Corneille sont nes a Rouen, The two Corneilles were born at 

Bouen.% 

519. Nevertheless, les Bourbons, les Condes, les Guises, les 
Stuarts are generally written in the plural; probably because in 
that case those proper names are -considered rather as common 
titles or surnames for certain families, than as special denomina- 
tions for individual men. Therefore, Bourbons, Condes, Guises, 

* Two French writers. 



232 



GRAMMAR. 



Stuarts, etc., do not represent single members, but several mem. 
bers possessed of qualities belonging to those families. Used as 
common names (273), they require the plural mark: therefore we 
say : 

Les Bonapartes, les Montniorencys, les The Bonapartes, the Montmorencys, the 
Tudors, etc., Tudors, etc. 

520. Proper names become common and take 5 in the plural when 
representing individual men resembling in qualities those whose 
names are assumed. 

La France a eu ses Cesars et ses Pom- France had its Caesars and its Pompeys. 
pees, 

namely, has produced generals such as Rome had, Caesar or Pompey. 

Un coup-d'oeil de Louis enfantait des A glance from Lewis brought forth 
Corneilles, Comedies. 

521. Remark. — Sometimes proper names may be used in French 
under the singular form, and be preceded bjjes, though designating 
single individuals. 

Ex.: 

Les Comeille, les Racine ont illustre* Corneille and Racine have illustrated 
la scene francaise, the French drama. 

In such cases, we know there is unity in the idea when the sense 
allows the dropping of the article. Here we may say: Corneille et 
Racine ont illustre la scene franchise. 

'522. Substantives borrowed from foreign languages, once made 
French by frequent use, take s in the plural like other French sub- 
stantives. 

With academical authority we may write (289) : 

Des accessits, des altos, des bravos, Second prices, tenor violins, bravoes or 

des debets, des duos, des solos, des cheers, debits, balance of accounts, 

examens, des factotums, des factums, duets, solos, exam inations, factotums, 

des folios, des impromptus, des lady s, factums, improvisatiotis, ladies, buf~ 

des lazzis, des macaronis, des nu- fooneries, macaronis, numbers, ope- 

meros, des operas, des panoramas, ras, panoramas, punitions, petitions, 

des pensums, des placets, des re- receipts, balances, specimens, tilburies, 

cipisses, des reliquats, des speci- wagons, threes, naughts, etc. 
mens, des tilburys, des wagons, des 
trois, des zeros, 

523. Accordingly, we think proper to write with s in the plural: 

Des agendas, des albums, des alibis, Memorandum-boohs, albums, alibis, pa- 
des alineas, des appartes, des con- ragraphs, words spoken aside, con- 

cettis, des deficits, des duplicatas, ceits, deficits, duplicates, errata, 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



233 



des erratas, des oratorios, des pianos, sacred music, pianos, quatuors, mis- 
des quatuors, des quiprocos, des understandings, tokens of satisfac- 

satisfecits, etc., tion, etc. 

Because, like those quoted number 522, such substantives are part 
of the ordinary language ; having adopted our accentuation, many of 
them have taken a French character. 

524* Foreign substantives which do not have the plural 5 are : 

(1.) Amen, credo, pater, maximum, Amen, credo, pater, Our Father (the 
minimum, etc., Lord's prayer), maximum, minimum, 

etc. 

(2.) Foreign substantives, formed of two or more words connected 
by hyphens: 

Post-scriptum, in-folio, in-octavo, in- "1 

quarto, mezzo-termine, ecce-homo, I Adopted from the Latin, Italian, 
ex-voto,fac-simile, auto-da-fe, forte- and Spanish languages, 

piano, Te-Deum, J 

Except : Senatus-consulte, des Senatus-consultes, decree of the Se- 
nate, etc. 

(3.) Substantives having h| their original languages peculiar ter- 
minations for plural. Such *re: 

Quintetti, carbonari, dilettanti, lazzaroni, etc., 
spelled in the singular 

Quintetto, carbonaro, dilettanto, lazzarone, lady, ladies, in English. 

Therefore we must say and write ladies, and not ladys, as indi- 
cated by the Academy (522). 

525. Invariable words employed as substantives, contrary to 
English practice, remain unchangeable in French (19). Such are: 
Les pour qitoi, les car, les oui, les non, les on dit, etc. 

Ex.: 

Les si, les pourquoi sont bien vigou- The ifs and whys are very strong ; we 

reux: on poutrait yjoindre les que, might add to them the ichats, ichos, 

les qui, les oui et les non, parcequ'ils yeses, and noes, because they are funny, 
sont plaisants, 

526. Compound substantives not yet become perfect words, viz. : 
having their compound parts separated by hyphens, according to the 
nature of the things they represent, are written either in the singu- 
lar or plural (280). 

527. Substantives and adjectives are the only words which take 
the plural mark when forming compound substantives. 



234 GRAMMAR. 

From the preceding general principles are deduced the following 
particular rules. 

528. (1.) When formed of a substantive and adjective, compound 
substantives take the plural mark in their two parts in French (331). 

Ex.: 

Une basse-taille, des basses-tailles, A bass, basses. 

Un plain-chant, des plains-chants, A plain chant, plain chants, 

Une allee-basse, des allees-basses, A low walk, low walks. 

The following are to be excepted : 

Des blanc-signs, Confidential signatures. 

Des terre-pleins, Places filled icith earth. 

Des chevau-legers, Horsemen of light cavalry. 

Des grand'nieres (-438), Grandmothers. 

Des grand'messes, etc., High-masses, etc. 

In the first two examples, the meaning does not allow the addi- 
tion of 5 to the words blanc, terre ; unity of color being in the mind 
with the first ; unity of substance with the last. 

In the third, as a sign of distinction, custom does not admit of the 
plural mark to the substantive chevaim 

In the last two, through reasons of euphony or for pronunciation, 
the adjective grand remains invariable. 

Remark. — (1.) Should we add x to the word chevau, the meaning 
would be that horses (animals) are light. As it is written, the signi- 
fication refers to riders alone. 

Un chevau-le'ger is a soldier of light cavalry. 

529. Remark. — (2.) "When compound substantives are made up 
of words never used alone, such as pie-grieche, loup-garou, gonime- 
gutte, etc., a cross woman, a bugbear, gamboge, etc., where the second 
part has in itself no signification, used as an adjective that second 
part takes the plural mark. 

Ex.: 

Des pies-grieches, des loups-garous, des gommes-guttes, etc. 

(Vice, Vice, substitute. ~\ n , - - 

Are to be excepted Semi, Semi, half. [ Us e ed for P re , fixes to 

(Quasi, ex, Nearly, late. J some words. 

Ex. : 

Des vice-rois, des vice-presidents. Viceroy, vice-president. 

Des semi-tons, des roses semi-doubles, Semi-tones, semi-double roses. 

Des quasi-delits, des ex-genlraux, Half trespasses, ex-generals. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 235 

530. (2.) In compound substantives, formed of two nouns (271 
bis) placed one immediately after the other, both nouns take the 
plural mark. The second, becoming an adjective (328), must agree 
with the first (331). 

Ex.: 

Un chef-lieu, des chefs-lieux, A chief place, chief places. 

Un chien-louji, des chiens-loups, A wolf-dog, wolf-dogs. 

Un chou-fleur, des choux-fleurs (292), A cauliflower, cauliflowers. 

The following compound substantives are to be excepted: 

Un appui-main, des appuis-main, A hand-supporter, etc. 

Un hotel-Dieu, des hotels-Dieu, An hospital. 

Un breche-dent, des breches-dent, A gap-toothed. 

(574), 

In bain-marie, des bains-marie, A wet bath. 

Un cheval-de-frise, des chevaux-de- A defensive instrument of war. 
frise, 

The words main, Dieu, dent, marie, frise, in the above examples, 
each representing a unit, cannot take the plural mark. 

531. (3.) "When made up of* two substantives united by a pre- 
position, the first part of the compound substantive taking the plural 
sign, the second part remains invariable: 

Ex. : 

Un ciel-de-lit, des ciels-de-lit, A bed-tester, bed-testers. 

Un chef-d'oeuvre, des chefs-d'oeuvre, A masterpiece, masterpieces. 

Un rat-d'6glise, des rats-d'eglise, A church-customer, church-customers. 

The following substantives are to be excepted : 

Des coq-a-1'ane, Cock-and-bull stories, 

Des pied-a-terre, Temporar-i/ lodgings, 

Des tete-si-tete, Private interviews between two persons, 

the sense not allowing the addition of the plural sign to the substan- 
tives coq, pied, tete. 

53'2. (4.) In compound substantives formed of a substantive joined 
to a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, the substantive alone takes the 
plural mark if there is plurality in the idea; adverbs (19) and pre- 
positions being invariable words. 

Accordingly, such substantives or nouns are written with $. 

Ex.: 

Des contre-cowps, Corresponding knocks. 

Des SiV&nt-coureurs, Forerunners. 

Des arriere-s«Y*ons, Latter end of seasons. 

Because, several knocks, runners, or seasons are meant (287). 

21 



236 GRAMMAR. 

Or without s, unity being in the ideas conveyed by the following 

compound substantives. 

Ex.: 

Des serre-t£te, Night-caps. 

Des reveille-matin, Alarm-clocks, 

Des centre-poison, Antidotes. 

In such cases, the article alone determines the number of the com- 
pound substantive. 

Eemark. — The compound substantive parapluie, umbrella, having 
no hyphen to bind its two component parts, follows the general rule 
and takes s. 

Lastly, because representing plurality in the idea, the following 
words will be written with s, either in the singular or plural, the 
verb remaining invariable as to number. 

( essuie-mains, Towel, viz. hands-iciper. 

-Un ou des \ porte-mnuchettes, Snuffers-stands. 

[ porte-clefs, Turn keys, or ring for keys. 

533* (5.) When made up of invariable words, such as verbs 
(532), prepositions, or adverbs, compound substantives do not take 
the plural mark. 

Ex.: 

Des pour-boire, Driver's fees. 

Des pince-sans-rire, Sly fellows. 

Des passe-partout, des passe-port,* Master-keys, passport. 

Passe-port, like the other substantives given as examples, conveys 
the idea of singleness. It stands for passe-porteur, a pass for the 
bearer. 

534. Complements of substantives (303) are always placed, in 
French, after the noun they limit or explain. The two words are 
joined by the preposition de, before indeterminate nouns; or by the 
same preposition accompanied of blended with the forms of the de- 
terminate article, when substantives are used determinately. 

Ex.: 

La puissance de Dieu, God's poxcer. 

La splendeur du Dieu de Tunivers, The splendor of the Creator of all things, 

L'immensite' du monde, The iinmcnsity of the world. 

La valeur des Romains, The valor of the Romans. 

La grosseur de la baleine, The size of the whale. 



* Fapquclle's Method, p. 287-6. Pujol and Van Norman, p. 137, rule 23. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 237 

Remark. — In cases where possession, relationship among persons, 
or connections of objects with their material are to be expressed, 
complements of substantives, in French, follow that invariable rule 
(304). 

Ex.: 

La sante de ma mere, My mother's health. 

La maison de mon pere, My father's house. 

La table de bois, The wooden table. 

La salle-a-manger, The eating -room. 

La belle-mere de ma soeur, My sister's mother-in-law. 

La bouteille de vin, The bottle of wine. 

La bouteille a vin, The wine-bottle. 

534 bis. According to the general principle of French syntax, that 
complements must follow the words whose signification they render 
complete, when enunciating numbers, we cannot in French use 
such constructions as these: 

One-and-twenly, four-and-twenty, eight-and-twenty, etc. 

Placing the smaller number after the larger, we must say in 
French : 

Ex.: 

Vingt et un, vingt-quatre, vingt-huit, Twenty-one, twenty-four, twenty-eight. 

Neither can we say in French, as in English: Twenty hundred, 
forty hundred, etc. 

In such cases we must use the following expressions, where the 
smaller number as a complement stands after the larger, according 
to general rule (303). 

Ex.: 

Deux mille, quatre mille, Two thousand, four thousand. 



QUESTIONS. 

504. Quand est-ce que le substantif amour est masculin? 505. 
Quand est-il feminin? 506. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur les 
substantifs orgue et de'lice ? 507. Quels sont les cas ou le substantif 
aigle est du genre feminin? 508. Quel est son genre dans tous les 
autres? 509. Comment emploie-t-on le substantif automne, est-ce 
au masculin ou au feminin? 510. Quel est le genre du substantif 
couple quand il signifie deux;qae\ est-il quand il marque la reunion 
volontaire entre deux personnes? 511. Dans quel cas le substantif 



GRAMMAR. 

enfant est-il da genre maseulin. dans quel autre est-il feminin? 
512, Quel est le genre du subsrantif ooemplef 513. Dites-nous quel 
est eelui du substantif foudre. consul. - ses diverges aecep- 

tions? 514. Faites-nous eonnaitre les variations de 1'aeeord avec le 
substantif gensf 515. Hjpmm est-il toujours du genre feminin? 
516. Quels sont les oas ou ^expression quelque chose est du genre 
feminin? 517. Quel est le genre du substantif trompetfe, et quelles 
sent ses aeceptions ? 51S. Qu'avez-vous a faire reniarquer sur la 
maniere d'ortographier les substantifs propres? 519. Quelle est 
1' exception a eette regie? 5*20. Pans quel eas les noms propres sont- 
ils assimiles aux noms eommuns? 521. Quelle est la remarque a 
faire sur l'emploi au pluriel des noms propres? 522. Pans quel eas 
les substantifs emprunt^s de l'£tranger subissent-ils la regie fran- 
chise : eitez-nous quelques uns de ees substantia - I and 
les aut] rangers que Ton peut assimiler a eeux-la? 

524. Parmi ees substantifs quels sont eeux qui rejettent la forme du 
pluriel. et quel est celui d'entre eux faisant exception a eette regie? 

525. Quels sont les mots de langue franeaise qui rejettent le signe 
du pluriel? 526. Qu'avez-vous a faire reniarquer sur les subs: 
composes, dont les parties sont reliees par un trait-d'union? 527. 
Parnr. *:antifs quels sont eeux suseeptibles de prendre le B _ 
du pluriel? 52S. Faitc>-uous eonnaitre les regies qui d£eoulent de 
ee prineipe general? 529. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur eene 
premiere regie? 530. Quelle est la deuxieme regie? 531. Quelle 
en est la troisieme? 532. La quatrieme? 533. La einquieme? 534. 
Qu'est-ee que le complement d'un sul - : quelle place oecu- 
pent ees mots dans les constructions franeaises? 534 bis. Faut-il 
observer eette regie avec les nombres ? 



CHAPTER THIRP. 
Article (305). 



535. The forms of the article le, la, les, in French, are used be- 

mmon substantives having a determinate signification; vix.: 

representing genera, species, single beings or objects, answering to the 

in English (3< ~ 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 239 

Ex.: 

Les hommes sont plutot faibles que Men are more weak than wicked, 

mechants (311), 
Les maladies de Tame sont phis dim- The diseases of the soid are more diffi,- 

ciles a guerir que celles du corps cult to cure than those of the body. 

(309), 
La ville de Rome a ete fondee 753 ans The city of Rome was founded 753 

avant J. C. (977), years before Christ. 

In the preceding examples the substantive hommes represents a 
genus, mankind; maladie refers to a species of disease; wife to the 
city of Home, a single object: therefore, having a determinate or 
limited signification, those substantives must be preceded by one 
of the forms of the determinate article. 

Remark. — Common substantives are determined or limited by 
determinative adjectives (358 bis) or complements placed after them 
(302) : therefore, the article does not limit their signification, as is 
asserted in some Methods.* 

536. The forms of the contracted article du, des, or the combina- 
tions de V, de la, answering to of the, from the, are placed before com- 
mon substantives indirect objects of neuter verbs employed in a 
determinate sense. In such cases prepositions are used in English. 

Ex.: 

Je parle du pain, de la viande, de I speak of bread, of meat, of money. 

Targent, 

Nous venons de J'Ame'rique du Nord, et We come from Forth America, and 

vous arrivez du Bengale, you arrive from Bengal. 

Or with complements of substantives answering to the genitive 

and ablative cases. 

Ex.: 

Le cheval du pere, les chevaux des The father's horse, the rider's horses. 

cavaliers, 
Le bon gout du pain, je viens du jardin, The good flavor of bread, I come from 

the garden. 
L'odeur desagrSable de la viande crue, The disagreeable smell of raw meat. 

*See Value's Ollendorff, p. 461, headed " Articles." Therefore, it is 
inaccurate also to say, u that articles are used in Frenoh to show the gender 
and number of nouns f because it is said in that language : 

Les Racine, les Corneille, les onze, Racine, Corneille, the eleven, 

Homme et femme, hommes et femmes, Man and woman, men and women, 

examples in which the article does not indicate number, nor its absence render 
doubtful the gender and number of substantives. 

21* 



240 



GRAMMAR. 



The same forms du, de V, de la, des, are placed also before common 
substantives having a partitive signification, to express parts of 
classes of persons or things spoken of (316). 

Ex.: 

II a du papier, f II a quelque papier, He has some 

paper. 
Vous avez de la fortune, I standing , Voug avez quelque You have some 

for j fortune, fortune. 

Nous possSdons des amis, Nouspossedons<7«e£- We have some 

[ ques amis, friends. 



537. The indefinite adjectives (370) quelque, un peu, a little, or 
du, de V, de la, des, used in the same signification, have a partitive 
meaning, answering to some in affirmations. — In interrogations 
(605), the forms du, de V ,de la, des, answering to any, have always a 
determinate meaning. 

Remark. — Du, des, de V , de la, quelque, un peu, in affirmations 
answering to some have a partitive meaning, implying possession of 
something. The same words used in interrogations have a determi- 
nate signification when answering to any, in English, or partitive 
when answering to some (538). 

Ex.: 

J'ai du pain, de J'argent, de la viande, / have some bread, some money, some 

des fruits, meat. 

Avez-vous du pain frais ? J'enai (1243), Have you any fresh bread? I have 

some of it. 
Avons-nous du pain, de Sargent, de la Have you any bread, any money, any 

viande ? meat ? 

Therefore, du, des, de V, de la, quelque, un peu, when answering 
to any in English, have a determinate signification.* 

II a du papier, 

Vous avez de la fortune, 



When we 
say : 



such 



expressions 
answer to 



'II a une portion de tout 

le papier, 
Vous avez une portion de 

toute la fortune, 
Nous avons une partie de 

tous les amis. 



Nous possedons des 
amis, 

viz. : He has a share of all the paper, he has a share of all the fortune, he owns 
apart of all the friends. 



■ The substantives paper, fortune, friends, here represent the whole 
genus or species ; the totality of paper, fortune, or friends contained 
in the world being signified: consequently, their meaning being 



* See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 30-5, Fasquelle's Method, p. 404-1, for 
inaccurate definitions of those cases and confusion of general principles. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 241 

determinate, they must be preceded by the forms of the determinate 
article (307). 

Remark. — 1st. Partitive sense, accordingly, is always determinate 
or limited ; determinate sense may not be partitive. The first refers 
to parts or fractions of genera, species, or single objects ; the last, to 
the whole of the objects contained in those classes. 

Ex.: 
Donnez-moi du vin, Give me some wine, Partitive. 

J'aime le gout du pain, / like the taste of bread, Determinate. 

L'amour de r argent, The love of money, do. 

Remark. — The forms du, de V, de la, des, have a determinate sig- 
nification when placed before substantives preceded by qualifying 
adjectives. These substantives in such cases, referring to whole 
classes, cannot have a partitive meaning. 

Ex.: 

J'ai du bon pain, n'ai-je pas du bon / have good bread, have I not any 
pain ? good bread ? 

answering in signification to: all the bread I have is good, etc. 

53S. The article is replaced by the preposition de, when sub* 
stantives having a partitive sense are preceded by qualifying 
adjectives, or in sentences at the same time inteiTogative and par- 
titive (1178 bis). 

Ex.: 

Donnez-moi de ce bon pain, Give me some of that good bread. 

Je bois cTexcellente biere, / drink some excellent beer. 

Ne possede-t-il pas de belles maisons ? Does he not possess some handsome 

houses ? 



539* In such exceptional cases, the combinations du, de V, de la, 

des, answer to the partitive word some, in English; and not in that 
language answers to the negations ne, pas, in French.* 

540. When partitive substantives and adjectives preceding them 

are intimately connected in meaning, as in these expressions, 

Petits-poids, petits-pates, petits-mai- Green-peas, small pies, dandies, pre- 

tres, petite-maitresse, bon-mot, tentious lady, pun, young men, 

jeunes-gens, petite-maison, grand- mad-house, great man, etc., 
homme, etc., 

considered as common substantives, they take the article according 
to rule (535). 

* Xo, in English, is used in negative indeterminate cases : 

Ex. : Je n'ai pas d'argent, T have no money. 



242 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Je ne connais rien d'ennuyeux comme / knoto nothing so tiresome as dan~ 
des petits-niaitres et des petites- dies or pretentious ladies. 

maitresses, 

Nous avons des petites-maisons, We have mad-houses'. 

In the last example, should we use the preposition de, in place of 
des, the sentence would have a different signification, answering to 
we have some small houses, a proposition of a partitive meaning. 

Remark. — Nouns or substantives having a determinate significa- 
tion take the article even though preceded by adjectives (538). 
Ex. : 

Nous sommes tous du meme avis, We are of the same opinion. 

Je parle des grands malheurs de ma 1 speak of the great sorrows of my 

vie, life. 

Des belles maisons qu'il possedait, il ne Of the handsome houses he possessed, 

lui en reste plus, not one is left. 

541. The article is not used before words of indeterminate signi- 
fication, viz., not expressing genera, species, or. particular beings or 
objects. 

Ex.: 

Une table de marbre, A marble table. 

Une maison de bois, ou en bois, A frame house. 

Un homme sans merite, A man xoithout merit. 

Se conduire avec sagesse, To behave wisely. 

In the preceding cases no particular species of marble, wood, 
merit, or wisdom, is intended. 

54 2. Used indeterminately, these words have a vague signification, 
which does not require the use of the article ; they form indirect com- 
plements of substantives (303, 414). 

Remark. — Preceded by indefinite adjectives (370), substantives 
take the determinate article when the signification is determinate, or 
the determinative numeral adjective (359) un, une, answering to a, 
an, in English, when the meaning is indeterminate. 

Ex.: 

Nous recumes Z' autre visite de nos We received the other visit of our 

amis, friends. 

Nous recumes une autre visite de nos We received another visit of our 

amis, friends. 

Recevrons-nous Z'autre envoi de mar- Shall we receive the other consignment 

chandises ? of goods ? 

Of the indefinite pronouns Vun, V autre, les uns, les autres (381, 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 243 

386), or the possessive pronouns le mien, le Hen, le noire, etc., the 
forms le, la, are integral parts. . 

From the foregoing principles are deduced the two following rules : 

543. (1.) When complements of collective nouns or adverbs of 
quantity, common substantives take no determinate article, their 
partitive meaning being determined by those words : 

Ex.: 

Une multitude de peuple, beaucoup de A multitude of people, many nations. 
nations, 

544* Except when these common substantives are determined 

by incidental propositions (477). 
Ex.: 

Un grand nombre des personnes que A great number of the persons whom 1 

j'ai vues. saw. 

II me reste peu des livres qui m'ont ete Few of the looks given me are left. 

donnes, 

Le peu des soldats qui eombattirent, The few soldiers who fought. 

545. The forms of the determinate article are used before com- 
mon substantives, complements of the adverbs la plupart, bien, unless 
those substantives are preceded by determinative adjectives. 

Ex.: 

La plupart des hommes, Most men. 

Bien des pays. Many countries. 

La plupart de ces hommes pensent Many of those men think so. 

ainsi, 

Bien de vos ami3 vous blameront, Several of your friends will blame you. 

546. Sometimes they are placed before proper names (521), to 
indicate special classes of men, without a direct reference to any 
individual represented by those names (310). 

Ex.: 

Les Corneille et les Racine sontrares, Such men as Comeille and Racine are 

scarce. 

547 . (2.) "When complements of active or transitive verbs conju- 
gated negatively, common substantives reject the determinate article, 
but take it when complements of neuter or intransitive verbs. In 
the first case the preposition de takes the place of the article (544). 

Ex.: 

Jo ne vous ferai pas de reproches, / will not reproach you. 

Je ne parle pas du pain, mais de l'eau, / do not speak of bread, but of water* 



244 GRAMMAR. 

Exception. — Should these substantives be followed by adjectives 
or incidental propositions, the forms of the determinate article must 
be placed before them, the meaning of those sentences being deter- 
minate. 

Ex.: 

Je ne vous ferai pas des reproches / will not make you frivolous re- 

frivoles, proaches. 

On ne soulage pas des douleurs qu'on No one alleviates contemptible sorrows. 

m Uprise, 

Hem ark. — The indirect object of active verbs conjugated negatively 
cannot have & partitive meaning. Verbs conjugated negatively affirm 
that something is not; expressing want of possession, their comple- 
ment cannot have a partitive signification, nor be a direct object, 
unless employed determinately at the same time (1178 bis). 
Je n'ai pas Je pain, I have not the bread. 

Je n'ai pas de pain, I have no breads 

548. Before the adverbs plus, mieux, moins, more, better, less 
(400), the forms of the determinate article are used to express com- 
parisons (409). 

Ex.: 
De toutes ces dames votre soeur est la Among those ladies your sister is the 
plus affligSe, most afflicted. 

When no comparison is intended, le alone is used to express that 
qualities are carried to the highest degree. 

Ex.: 
Votre soeur ne pleure pas lors m§me Your sister does not cry even when 
qu'elle est le plus affligSe, most afflicted. 

Remark. — In such cases, when no comparison is intended, drop- 
ping the le, the words au plus haut point, au plus haut degre* may 
be added as complement to the adjective. 

Ex. : 
Votre frere est afflige au plus haut Your brother is most afflicted. 
point, 

549. Le plus, le moins, le mieux, when connected with verbs or 
adverbs, are always invariable, forming in such cases adverbial 
expressions (406). 

Ex.: 

Racine et Boileau sont les poetes qui Racine and Boileau are the best writers 

ecrivent le mieux, qui s'expriment among poets; they express them- 

le plus noblement, selves the most nobly. 

* See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 30-8, Fasquelle's Method p. 35-5, edition 
of 1858. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 245 

Remark. — The forms le, la, les, are integral parts of possessive 
pronouns (382), as already remarked (542). 

Do not confound the pronouns Vun, V autre, les uns, les autres, "with 
the determinative adjective un, une, as does the member of the Uni- 
versity of Michigan, p. 301-2, where he says, " "When used substan- 
tively, un takes, at times, the form of the plural, les uns 9 les autres, 
les unes et les autres, etc, }f 

Repetition of the Article. 

550. The article is repeated in the following cases : 

(1.) "With every substantive having a determinate signification, 

— definite in English. 

Ex.: 

I/esprit, le coeur, les moeurs, tout gagne The mind, the heart, morals, every thing 
a la culture, improves by cultivation. 

Therefore it cannot be said, as in English : 

Les officiers et soldats, Officers and soldiers, 

instead of: "Les officiers et les soldats ;" because the article here pre- 
cedes different substantives. 

Except in expressions like the following, where substantives are 
synonymous. 

Ex.: 
Le comite des voies et moyens, The committee of ways and means, 

551. (2.) Before two adjectives connected by et, and, when 
qualifying different substantives. 

Ex.: 
Le vieux et le jeune soldat, The old and the young soldier. 

This example contains an ellipsis (854). It answers to: 
Le vieux soldat et le jeune soldat, The old soldier and the young soldier : 

where, two substantives being meant, there must be also two forms of 
the determinate article. Yet we say, in French or English : . 

Le vieux et brave soldat, The old and brave soldier, 

because but one soldier is meant, a soldier at once old and brave. 
A single substantive being intended, one form of the article is all 
- that is required. 

Remarks. — From the foregoing rules we conclude : 



246 GRAMMAR. 

55*2. [I.) The forms of the article agree always in gender and 
number with the substantives which they precede; see 2. for 

ptions. 

553. ( 2.) In determ i note cases affirm :r tive those simple 
forms are used, and are dropped in indeterminate ones (1178 bis).* 

Ex.: 

J'ai le jardin et les ar / hare the garden and free*. 

Je n'ai ni .argent ni la maison. I hare neither the money nor the house, 

H ^ a'l I ni arbres ni jardin, ITe hace neither tree* mar garden* 

554. (3.) They may also be dropped in cases where rapid: 
to be communicated to narrative or descriptive styles of writing. 

Ex.: 

Per: enfants,vieillards et in- Father*, mother*, children, old men, 

ft nnes, tout fiat passe an fil-de- invalids, all were put to the ncord. 

1'ey 

555. (4.) Or in proverbial expressions, used always indetermi- 
nately. 

Ex.: 

ntement passe richesses (1187 bis), Contentment i* better than riche*. 

558 is. (5.) They are not employed before one or more words 
determined by complements or used alone, when having no definite 

moanini:. 

Ex. : ~~ 

Faute d'argent notice, preface, For want of money, notice, preface* 

Tableau general de la France, General mew of France* 

I : ription de notre voyage en Angle- Description of our Journey in England* 

terre. 

fneUiart of being followed by indirect objects, subjects may be 

completed by incidental propositions (477). 

Ex.: 

Homme* qui voyei ma d^tresse (478), Men who *ee my *orrow, 
Arbres que nous royons pen I Tree* that we *ee grow, 

Champs que nous royons verdir, etc*, Field* that we *ee becoming green, etc, 

or the like exclamative sen" Also, in expressions where sub- 

stantives are used indeterminately, such as : avoir foi, dessein, besom, 
^hich require the article when used determinately. 
Avoir la foi d'un croyant. 

* For erroneous examples and theories on partitire sense, see Fasquelle'a 
d, p. 31-2, p. 40-3. 



SYNTAX OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 247 

QUESTIONS. 

535. Quel est Pemploi de Particle en Franqais? 536. Dans quel 
cas les formes de Particle sont-elles employees avec un sens partitif ? 
537. Quelle est en Anglais le mot correspondant a Padjectif indefini 
quelqiie t 538. Dans quel cas reinplace-t-on l^s formes de Particle 
par la preposition de? 539. Quel est le cas ou cette proposition 
correspond au partitif anglais somef 540. Quand emploie-t-on 
Particle devant les substantifs qualifies ayant un sens partitif? 541. 
Dans quel cas n'emploie-t-on pas Particle ? 542. Les complements ne 
sont-ils relies aux substantifs que par la preposition de? 543. Em- 
ploie-t-on Particle avec les complements des noms collectifs, ou avec les 
adverbes de quantity? 544. Quelle est Pexception a de pareils cas? 
545. Quels sont les adverbes qui requierent Particle devant leurs 
complements ? 546. Dans quels cas emploie-t-on Particle devant les 
noms propres? 547. Quand est-ceque les substantifs communs 
rejettent les formes de Particle? 548. Quels sont les cas ou les formes 
de Particle sont employees avec les adverbes plus, mieux, moins? 
549. Quand n' emploie-t-on que lei 550. Dans quels cas doit-on 
rep6ter Particle? 551. Dans quel autre le repete-t-on? 552. Quelle 
est la premiere remarque a faire sur Pemploi de Particle ? 553. 
Quelle en est la deuxieme? 554. La troisieme? 555. Dites-nous 
•quelle en est la quatrieme ? 555 bis. Quelle en est enfin la cin- 
quieme ? 

Remark. — Besides being practical, the above questions refer to 
the theories required for a good application of syntax. They are a 
complete resume of studies on the French language. 



CHAPTER FOURTH. 

Qualifying Adjective (322). 

555 ter. Qualifying adjectives must be connected in a direct and 
unequivocal manner with the words which they modify. In either 
French or English it would be incorrect to say : 

Ex.: 

Riche ou puissant vous m'avez toujours Rich or powerful you have always been 
6te fidele, faithful to me. 

22 



248 GRAMMAR. 

In this sentence, it is not expressed to which of the pronouns 

vous or me are connected the adjectives riclie, puissant. 

Instead of the above, we should say : 

Ex.: 

Vous m'avez toujours ete fidele quand You have always been faithful to me 
vous etiez riche et puissant, ou, when you were rich and powerful, 

vous ni'avez toujours ete fidele or, you have been always faithful 

quand j'etais riche et puissant, to me when I was rich arid power- 

ful. 

In these constructions the sense is no longer equivocal. In the 
first sentence the adjectives riclie, puissant, modify the pronoun vous; 
in the second they modify je. 

556. Adjectives in French are variable words, agreeing in gen- 
der and number with the substantives they qualify (323). In Eng- 
lish, on the contrary, they are invariable for both gender and num- 
ber, though sometimes variable in inflexions to express degrees of 

comparison (408). 

Ex.: 

Un homme rertueux, une femme ver- A virtuous man, a virtuous woman. 

tueuse, 
Un enfant docile, des enfants dociles, A good-tempered child, good-tempered 

children. 
Beau, plus beau. Sage, plus sage, Fine, finer. Wise, wiser. 

557. In cases where several substantives or pronouns are to be 
qualified by the same adjective, the adjective takes the plural form. 
Should the substantives or pronouns be of different genders, the ad- 
jective should be in the masculine form. 

Ex.: 

Le riche et le pauvre sont egaux devant Rich and poor are equal before God. 

Dieu, 
Ufle occupation et un travail continuels Assiduous labor, with application, will 

font surmonter bien des obstacles overcome many obstacles. 

(545). 

558. Remark. — When substantives of different genders are qua- 
lified by the same adjective, euphony requires the masculine sub- 
stantive to be placed last, provided that adjective has an inflexion 
expressing gender. 

Such are : bon, bonne, entier, entiere, Sparis, epaisse, grand, grande, 
etc. (333). 

Ex.: 

II a montre une prudence et un com- He has shotcn a wonderful prudence and 

rage etonnants, bravery. 



SYNTAX OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 249 

Instead of such an inharmonious construction as, II a montre un 
courage et une prudence etonnants. Hence it should not be said, as 
is authorized by certain grammars emanating from high places : 

Mes freres et mes sceurs sont tves-vifs. (See Fasquelle's Method, 
Exercise pp. 55, 56.) 

Les chevaux et les mules de mon frere sont tres-r£#/s. 

559. Exceptions. — (1.) Placed after severll substantives, adjectives 
agree always with the last. 

560. 1. When the substantives they qualify are synonymous; viz. : 
having nearly the same signification. 
Ex.: 

II a montre une reserve, une retenue, He ha a shown a prudence, a discretion, 
digne d'eloges, deserving of praise. 

Toute sa vie n'a 6te qu'un travail, His or her whole life has been a con- 
qu'une occupation continuelle, tinual labor or occupation. 

561. 2. "When the conjunction ou, or, connects two substantives, 
that conjunction gives exclusion to one of the two. As the most 
conspicuous, it is upon the last that the qualification falls. For false 
syntax see Pujol and Van Norman, p. 138-29. 

Ex.: 

Un courage ou une prudence Stonnante, A wonderful courage and prudence. 

56*1. (2.) The adjective nu, naked, placed before the substantives 
con, tete, bras, pieds, jambes, always remains invariable, forming with 
those substantives a kind of adverbial expression (568). 

Ex.: 

Nu-tcHe, nu-bras, nu-janibes, nu-pieds, Bareheaded, bare-armed, bare-legged, 

barefoot. 

Accordingly, we must write with agreement the substantive and 
adjective not making an invariable expression: 

Toute nue la verite" doit deplaire, Naked truth must be displeasing. 

Conserver la nue propriety d'un bien, To retain the bare owner's right. 
II va la tete et les jambes nues, He goes bareheaded and barefooted. 

Those sentences contain an inversion (861). In the direct con- 
struction the substantive precedes the adjectives, as shown in the 
last example. 



250 GRAMMAR. 

The compound substantive va-nu-pieds, answering to a go-bare- 
foot, is used for both genders with reference to people of low con- 
dition. 

Ex.: 

Un va-nu-pieds, une va-nu-pieds (532), A man or woman of low birth or con- 
dition. 

Pied answers to foot, a part of the body or a measure in both 
languages. With reference to plants, shrubs, or trees, the same 
word answers to stock or plant in English (1185). 

Ex.: 
Un pied de laitue, un pied de vigne, A plant of lettuce, a stock of vine. 

563* Placed after the substantives which it modifies, the adjective 
?iu follows the general rule, agreeing in gender and number with 
the substantive it qualifies (323). 

Ex.: 

Avoir la tete nue, les jambes nues, les To be bareheaded, bare-legged, bare* 

pieds nuds, foot. 

Une morale nue cause de l'ennui, A naked morality excites disgust. 

564. (3.) Placed before substantives to modify them, the adjective 
demi, half remains invariable, forming with those substantives a 
sort of compound noun, whose two parts are connected by a hyphen. 

Ex.: 

Une demi-heure, une demi-livre, Half an hour, half a pound. 

Un demi-boisseau, une demi-aune, Haifa bushel, half a yard. 
Un demi-arpent, une demi-lieue, Half an acre, half a league. 

565. Placed after substantives, it takes their gender and remains 
in the singular: connected by the conjunction et, arid, the two 
words drop the hyphen (448). 

Ex.: 

Un an et demi, une heure et demie, A year and a half, an hour and a half, 
trois metres et demi, three yards and a half. 

In the last examples there is an ellipsis ; a substantive in the sin- 
gular is understood in both languages, though the adjective demi 
modifies plural nouns. Those expressions answer to the following: 

Trois metres et un demi-7n£ire, Three yards and a half-yard. 

Un an et un demi-an, A year and a half-yonr. 

Une heure et une demi-hcure, An hour and a half-hour. 



SYNTAX OP THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 251 

566. Used substantively (330), the adjective demi, half, takes the 
plural mark following the rule of substantives (289). 

Ex.: 

Une demie. Deux demies font un One half. Two halves make a whole. 
entier, 

567. (4.) The adjective feu, late, does not agree with substantives 
it qualifies, unless placed immediately before them. 

Ex.: 
La feue reine. Votr% feue mere, The late queen. Your late mother. 

In sujh cases, the adjective feu, qualifying the two determinate 
substantives reine, mire, agrees with them in gender and number. 

Separated from those nouns by the forms of the article or deter- 
minative adjectives, yew remains invariable. 

Accordingly, we must say without agreement: feu la reine, feu 
voire mere, feu noire tante, etc. 

Because the adjective feu is separated from the substantives by the 
forms of the article and possessive adjective la, voire, noire. 

568. Used adverbially, viz.: to modify verbs, qualifying ad- 
jectives remain always invariable (393, 394). 

Ex.: 

Ces livres coutent cher, Those books cost dear* 

Ces fleurs sentent bon, These flowers smell good. 

lis marchent vite, They walk fast. 

In sentences where participles or adjectives stand between a verb 
or a substantive, they may modify the verb or the noun (775). 

When modifying the verb, they remain invariable. They agree 
with the substantive when modifying it, whether that substantive be 
preceded or not by the determinate article. Adjectives and participles, 
in these cases, replacing adverbs remain invariable (390). 

Vous trouverez ci-inelus copie (on la Herein is a copy of the deed. 

copie) du contrat, 
Ci-joint copie (on la copie) du traite, Herewith is a copy of the treaty. 

The last example is elliptical ; the verb irouver is understood. In 
those cases, inclus, joint, modifying verbs, must remain invariable. 

On the contrary, we will say with agreement, the participle jointe 
modifying copie: 

La copie ci-jointe est celle du trait€, Subjoined is a copy of the treaty. 

22* 



252 GRAMMAR. 

The expression franc-de-port is subject to the same rule. It re- 
mains invariable when" the adjective franc modifies verbs, or agrees 
when modifying nouns. Therefore we will say without agreement : 

Nous recevons ses lettres franc-de-port; standing for c'est franc- 
de-port que nous recevons ses lettres. Or with agreement of the ad- 
jective with the noun when preceded by a direct complement. 

Les lettres que vous recevrez de moi The letters you will receive from me 
seront franches-de-port, will be postpaid. 

See Pujol and Yan Norman, p. 140-36, 37, 38; Fasquelle, p. 
410-4. m 

569. Compound adjectives (327) are subject to the four following 
rules, having some analogy to those on compound sulfstantives 

(526). 

570. (1.) When compound adjectives are formed of two adjectives, 

they both vary in gender and number. Such are : 

Aveugle-ng, premier-n6, mort-ng, ivre- Born blind, first-born, still-bom, dead- 
mort, sourd-muet, drunk, deaf and dumb, 

Ex.: 

Des hommes ivres-morts, Men dead-drunk. 

Des femmes sourdes-muettes, Women deaf and dumb. 

Des enfants premiers-nes, Children first born. 

571. Exceptions. — (1.) Compound adjectives beginning with the 
prefixes mi, demi, semi, such as: mi-parti, divided into two parts; 
demi-barbare, semi-barbarous; semi-p6riodique, semi-periodical, re- 
main always invariable in that prefix. 

Ex.: 

Une Stoffe wu-partie noire et wi-partie A stuff half black and white, or parti- 

blanche, colored. 

Des peuples demi-civi\is&8, Half-civilized nations, 

Des fleurs «em/-doubles, Semi-double flowers. 

572. (2.) When compound adjectives are formed of two ad- 
jectives, the first being used adverbially, according to rule 568, must 
remain invariable; the second is subject to agreement with the sub- 
stantive which it qualifies. Such are : 

Nouveau-n6, clair-s£m6, aigre-doux, New-born, thinly -spread, sweet and 
court-vetu, court-joints, sour, short-dressed, short-jointed, 

Ex.: 

Une fille nouveau-nee, A new-born girl. 

Des enfants nouveau-n6s, Neio-born children. 

Des hommes court-vStus, Short-dressed men. 

Des femmes court-vStues, Short-dressed women. 



SYNTAX OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 253 

5^2 bis. Except frais-cueilli, newly gathered, and tout-puissant, 

almighty, which for the sake of euphony are in plural feminine 

cases: 

Fraiches-cueillies, Newly -gathered. 

Toutes-puissantes, Almighty, 

5*73. (3.) When compound adjectives are made of invariable 
words, such as adverbs or prepositions coupled with an adjective, 
that last word alone is subject to agreement. Such are: 

Bien-aime, Beloved. 

Bien-disant, Charitable in speech. 

Mal-avise, Imprudent, or badly informed. 



Ex. 



Contre-revolutionnaire, etc., Anti-revolutionist, etc. 

Des enfants bien-aimes, Beloved children. 

Des personnes bien-disantes, People of benevolent words. 



Des hommes mal-avises, Men badly informed, or imprudent men. 

5*74. (4.) The two compound adjectives breche-dent, gap-toothed, 
— applied to a person having lost a front tooth — chevre-pied, goat- 
footed, — applied to a satyr, an imaginary deity having goat's feet — 
must be written according to the analysis of those compound words. 
Guided by this principle, we would suggest the rendering of breche- 
dent invariable for number, as it is for gender, no parts of the word 
requiring the plural mark ; a breach or gap in the teeth arising from 
the loss of a single tooth being enough to give a person the name 
breche-dent. The plural mark, it seems to us, must fall on the qua- 
lified substantive as the only word conveying an idea of plurality 
(530). 
Ex.: 
Un homme breche-dent, des hommes A gap-toothed man, gap-toothed men. 

breche-dent, 
Une femme breche-dent, des femmes A gap-toothed woman, gap-toothed 

breche-dent, women. 

On the contrary, according to the same analytic principle, in the 
case of the second compound adjective, chevre-pieds, we would in- 
variably write the substantive chevre, goat, in the singular, and pied, 
foot, in the plural. 
Ex.: 

Un dieu chevre-pieds, A god with goat's feet. 

Des dieux chevre-pieds, Gods with goats feet. 

Des divinitSs chevre-pieds, Deities with goat's feet. 

5*75. Adjectives are always governed by the substantives they 
modify, but cannot themselves exert any influence on substantives 
(323). Therefore we should not say, against grammatical accuracy: 



254 GRAMMAR. 

Les literatures franchise et italienne. 
Les langues grecque et latine. 
Les histoires ancienne et moderne. 

These examples are elliptical (854). Of the two adjectives con- 
tained in each, one modifies a substantive expressed,the other a sub- 
stantive understood. 

It is as though it were written: 

Ex.: 
La litterature francaise et (la littera- The French and Italian literature. 

ture) italienne, 
La langue grecque et (la langue) latine, The Greek and Latin tongue. 
L'histoire ancienne et (rhistoire) mo- The ancient and modern history. 
derne, 

Therefore, since the expressed substantive represents a simple unit, 
the adjectives following it cannot take the plural mark, both quali- 
fying the same singular substantive. 

Consequently, with ellipsis in both languages, we will say : 

La litterature francaise et italienne, The French and the Italian literature. 

La langue grecque et la latine, The Greek and the Latin tongue. 

L'histoire ancienne et la moderne, The ancient and the modern history. 

"When substantives are followed by complements, adjectives agree 
with the xcord they qualify (866). 

Ex. : 

Des vases d'or massif. Vases of solid gold. 

Des tables d'argent massif, Tables of solid silver. 

TTn cube de bois creux, A wooden hollow cnbe. 

From the preceding rule we may see the incorrectness of the 
following expression : 

Le premier et le seconde itages (Pujol and Van Norman, p. 134-12). 

"We might say with correctness: Les premiers et les seconds stages: 
the adjectives premiers, seconds, in that case qualify two plural 
mouns, one expressed, the other understood. 

5*76. Therefore the same distinction must be made between the 

ordinal adjectives le premier, le second, or between the indefinite 

pronouns Yun V autre. 

Le premier et le second etage, The first and second floors. 
"We should . Le cinquieme et le sixieme The fifth and sixth chapters. 
say : chapitre, 

L'un et l'autre mStal, Both metals, for one metal and 

the other metal. 



SYNTAX OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 255 

Those phrases answering in meaning to our English translation, 
or to the following in French : 

Le premier Stage et le second etage, 

Le cinquieme chapitre et le sixieme chapitre, 

I/un metal et l'autre metal. 

The desire for conciseness, harmony, clearness, leads to such ellip- 
tical constructions, where the substantives itage, chapitre, me'tal, 
cannot be used in the plural in French sentences, though correct in 
English. 

577. rp WQ a( jj ec tives remain invariable when the first qualifies 
the second; adjectives in themselves having no faculty of gender or 
number (331). 

Ex.: 

Des cheveux chatain-clair, Light chestnut hair. 

Des etoffes rose-tendre, Delicate pink tissues. 

Des soies feuille-morte, Light-brown silks. 

In these expressions, the first adjective is used substantively. It 

is as if it was expressed indeterminately with unity of color in the 

idea : 

D'un chatain-clair, Of a light chestnut. 

D'un rose-tendre, Of a delicate pink. 

D'un feuille-morte, Of a light brown. 

578. Some adjectives are to qualify persons. Such are : 

Consolable, inconsolable, intentionnS, Consolable, inconsolable, intentional, 
consequent, etc., consistent, etc. 

Others to qualify things, viz.: 

Pardonnable, impardonnable, contes- Pardonable, unpardonable, contest- 
table, incontestable, inestimable, able, incontestable,' inestimable, 

inevitable, important, etc., inevitable, important, etc. 

Hence we must not say in French : 

TJne femme impardonnable, An unpardonable woman. 

Une douleur inconsolable, An inconsolable grief. 

TJne chose consequente,* A consistent affair. 

Practice and judicious reading will teach the proper use of those 
adjectives better than we can with rules. 

* Fasquelle's Method, p. 442 : " La chose est de trop peu de consequence pour 
la traiter serieusement." Granting this sentence to be from Voltaire's pen, the 
member of the Michigan University need not have endorsed that grammatical 
error. 



256 



GRAMMAR. 



519. Some adjectives are placed before substantives. Such are: 
Beau, ton. grand, petit, etc., Handsome, good, large, small, etc. 

Do not say: un pain bon. un arbre grand, un teint beau. Guided 

by good practice, write or say : 

Un beau teint,* A fine complexion, 

A good bread. 



Un bon pain, 
Un grand arbre, 



A large tree. 



That class of adjectives generally express good or bad qualities, 
dimensions, form, or shape in the substantives they qualify or limit 
in signification. 

Other adjectives, on the contrary, stand after the words they 
modifv. Such are: 



Rouge, ovale, neuf. boiteux, malade, 
etc., 

Ex.: 

Un drapeau rouge, 
Un cadre ovale, 
Un habit neuf, 
Un enfant boiteux, 
Un femme malade, 



Med, oval, new, lame, sick, etc 



A red flag. 
An oral frame. 
A new coat. 
A lame child. 
A sick woman. 



Many adjectives precede or follow substantives, according to 
euphony or taste. Such are : 
Charniant, excellent, veritable, etc., Charming, excellent, true, e 

Ex. : 

Une channante maison, ou une maison A charming habitation. 

charmante. 

Un excellent pere, ou un pere excellent, A n excellent father. 

Un veritable ami, ou un ami veritable, A true friend. 

Those two forms of construction are identical in French. 

5SO. Some adjectives also, according to the place they occupy, 
preceding or following, change the meaning of substantives (1191). 
In these cases they form compound substantives in French, and 
take a hyphen (450). 



For instance : - 



Un brave-homme, 
Un honime brave. 
Un honnete-homme, 
Un homme hoc:. 
Un pauvre-homme, 
Un homme pauvre, 
Une grande-femme, 
Une femme grande, 
Une belle -femme, 
Une femme belle. 



A good man, 
A gallant man. 
An honest man* 
A polite man. 
A MM n.an. 
A poor man, 

A portly or celebrated woman. 
A tall woman. 
A tall woman, 
[ A handsome woman* 



Fasquelle's Key of Exercises, p. 92, and his Method, | 



SYNTAX OF THE QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE. 257 

Custom or practice, we repeat, will teach the proper place of ad- 
jectives much better than could elaborate rules, lacking precision 
or generality. 

Complements of Two Adjectives. 

581* Complements of adjectives, we have seen, are words com- 
pleting their signification (355). Two adjectives may have a single 
or the same complement, provided those complements require the 
same preposition (1193, 1194). 

Ex.: 
II est utile et cher a sa famille, He is useful and dear to his family , 

because it may be said, in French as in English, 

Utile d, cher d, Useful to, dear to- . • 

58*2. When two adjectives do not require the same preposition, 
as, for instance, utile, useful, governing^, ch6ri, cherished, governing 
de, we must supply adjectives with suitable complements (1194). 

Ex.: 

H est utile a sa famille et en est cheri, He is useful to and cherished by his 

family. 

II est utile et ch€ri de sa famille would be incorrect in French, 
because the preposition de cannot connect the adjective utile with its 
complement famille (67, 713). 

Remark. — Past participles of verbs conjugated with Ure, like 
adjectives, agree with their subject though that auxiliary be under- ( 
stood (776). In the following examples, (qui soient) subject and 
verb understood are replaced by de. 

Les fraises sont mures, en avez-vous de Strawberries are ripe, have you any 

cueillies ? gathered? 

Ces soldats manquent de tout, en avez- Those soldiers are entirely destitute, 

vous de mieux Squipes, have some better equipped. 

The pronoun en, of him, of her, of them, of it, we have remarked 
(377), is used grammatically, in French, either for persons or 
things. 

QUESTIONS. 

555 ter. Comment faut-il faire rapporter Fadjectif qualificatif ? 
556. Faut-il qu'il y ait accord entre Fadjectif et le substantif? 557. 
Quand faut-il mettre Fadjectif au pluriel masculin? 558. Quelle est 



258 GRAMMAR. 

la place que doit occuper un substantif masculin, quand, accompagne" 
d'un substantif fieniinin, ils sont Tun et V autre qualifies par le meme 
adjectif ? 559. Quelle est la premiere exception a cette regie ? 560. 
Quel est le premier cas de cette exception? 561. Quel en est le 
second ? 562. Quelle est la seconde exception ? 563. Dans quel cas 
T adjectif ww s'accorde-t-il avec le substantif qu'il qualifie? 564. 
Quelle est la troisieme exception relative a Padjeetif demi? 565. Dans 
quel cas cet adjectif prend-il le genre du substantif et conserve le 
n ombre singulier ? 566. Qu'avez-vous a dire sur Temploi de demi 
comme substantif? 567. Quelle est la quatrieme exception? 568. 
Dans quel cas les adjectifs qualificatifs deviennent-ils invariables? 
569. A combien de regies sont soumis les adjectifs composes ? 570. 
Quelle est la premiere regie qui r6git ces adjectifs? 571. Quelle est 
rexception a cette regie? 572. Quelle est la seconde regie? 572 bis. 
Quelle en est Pexception ? 573. Quelle est la troisieme regie sur les 
adjectifs composes? 574. Quelle en est la quatrieme? 575. Qui des 
deux mots est le gouvernant, est-ce le substantif ou Padjeetif? 
576. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur les adjectifs ordinaux et sur 
les pronoms indefinis Fun, V autre? 577. Qu ; arrive-t-il quand 
deux adjectifs, Tun k la suite de P autre, le dernier est qualifie" par le 
premier? 578. Faites-nous connaitre certains adjectifs propres k 
qualifier les personnes, et quelques autres qui ne sont employes que 
pour qualifier les choses ? 579. Quelles sont les places qu'occupent 
certains adjectifs? 580. Quels sont ceux d'entre les adjectifs qui 
changent la signification des substantifs selon qu'ils sont places avant 
ou apres? 581. Le meme complement peut-il servir k deux adjectifs? 
582. Que fait-on quand deux adjectifs requierent des pr6positions 
differentes ? 



CHAPTER FIFTH. 

Determinative Adjectives (358). 

583. Vingt, cent, twenty, hundred, are the only numeral cardinal 
adjectives susceptible of taking the plural mark (361). 

Vingt, cent, take s when multiplied by another number, and 
followed immediately by a noun either expressed or understood. 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 259 



Ex.: 



Quatre-vingts soldats, Eighty soldiers. 

lis sont quatre-vingts (4-49), They are eighty. 

II y en a deux cents, There are two hundred. 

Remark. — Un, une, one, we have already remarked (361), is the 

only one variable in gender. 

Ex.: 

Un arbre, un pent, une maison, une One tree, one bridge, one house, one 
porte, door. 

Un, une, when preceded by the forms of the determinate article 
become indefinite pronouns (386). They are not used substantively, 
as is asserted in some Methods.* 

584. Exception to the preceding rule. — Although multiplied by 
another number, vingt, cent, do not take the plural mark when 
followed immediately by another number. 

Ex.: 

Quatre-vingt-cinq soldats, Eighty-Jive soldiers. 

Trois cent-dix chevaux, Three hundred and ten horses. 

Huit cent-deux hommes, Eight hundred and two men. 

585. Remark. — Vingt, cent, remain always invariable when used 
instead of the ordinal determinative adjectives vingtieme, centieme, 
twentieth, hundredth. In these cases they qualify a substantive, either 
expressed or understood. 

Ex.: 

Chapitre quatre-vingt, page deux 

cent, 
En Tan sept-cent quatre-vingt 

(825), 
En huit cent, 



Chapitre quatre- vingtieme, 

standing I page deux centi ^ me ' 

n 5 -j Pendant Tan sept-cent quatre- 

vingtieme, 

[ Pendant Tan huit centieme, 

answering in English to: eightieth chapter, one hundredth page; during the 

seventh hundred and eightieth year, etc. 



This rule applies to cardinal adjectives used as ordinals, when they 

specify rank among sovereigns or things. 

Ex.: 

Henri Quatre, *) . ,. f Henri le quatrieme, Henry the Fourth. 
„ & I Livre huitieme, Eighth book (118-4). 



Livre huit, > - 

Chapitre treize, J ( Chapitre treizieme, Thirteenth chapter. 

Remark. — The numeral adjective un precedes cent when used 
indeterminately. Used in a determinate signification, the same 

* See Fasquelle's Method, p. 301-2. 
23 



260 GRAMMAR. 

numeral adjective is preceded by the forms of the determinate 

article le or la, the. 

Ex.: 

Un cent d'ceufs (960), une centaine A hundred of eggs. 

d'ceufs, 

Le cent d'ceufs vaut trois francs, Eggs are worth three francs a hundred. 

La centaine n'est pas encore atteinte, The hundred is not yet reached. 

In such cases, tin, tine, answers to a, an, in English (318). 

586. Mille, thousand, is written in three different ways : 
When used in the calculation of years dating from the Christian 

era, mil, thousand, is a contraction of mille. 

Ex.: 

L'Amerique a 6te dScouverte en Tan America \cas discovered in the year of 
mil-quatrecentquatre-vingt-douze, our Lord fourteen hundred and 

ninety-two. 

587. Should it be preceded by a numeral adjective, or refer to 
periods of time anterior to the Christian era, it is not thus con- 
tracted. 

Ex.: 

L'an quatre mille du monde, Four thousand years after the creation. 

Mille deux cents an's avant le deluge, One thousand two hundred years before 

the food. 
Mille ans apres la fondation de Baby- One thousand years after the founda- 
lonne, Hon of Babylon. 

588. When signifying ten hundred, in this and the preceding 
cases, mille remains invariable, being a determinative numeral car- 
dinal adjective used always with common substantives to limit or 
number them (360). 

Ex.: 

Six cent mille soldats ont peri dans nn Six hundred thousand soldiers perished 

an, in a year. 

Nos troupes firent cinq mille prison- Our troops captured five thousand 

niers, prisoners. 

Nous sommes en tout cinquante mille, All told, we are fifty thousand. 

Remark. — The last example is elliptical, the substantive hommes, 
men, being understood. 

589. Mille takes s when signifying a milt, a measure of distance. 
Being a common substantive, it follows the general rule for number 
(289). 

Ex.: 

Trois niilles d'Angleterre font plus Three English miles are more than a 
d'une lieue de France, French league. 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 261 

590. "When used substantively, other numeral adjectives remain 
invariable (361). 

Ex.: 

Voici Melitus, le chef des onze (313), This is Melitus, chief of the eleven, 

591. Being common substantives, million, milliard, million, hun- 
dred thousand millions, follow the syntax of that part of speech. 
They always require complements, and are employed either determi- 
nately or indeterminately. 

Ex.: 

Un million d'habitants, un million de A million of inhabitants, a million of 

dollars, dollars. 

Le= millions qu'a coute la gnerre, The millions the icar has cost. 

Le million qne coute ce navire, The million that ship costs. 

The two last examples are elliptical; the substantives representing 
the coin expended are understood: pounds, dollars, francs, etc., un- 
derstood, are the complements of the substantive million. 

592. "When the possessor is plainly shown by the signification, 
possessive adjectives must be replaced by the forms of the determi- 
nate article (364 

Ex.: 

J'ai mal a la tete, I have the headache. 

Pierre s'est easse le bras, Peter broke his arm. 

Je me suis foule le poignet, I sprained my icrist. 

It is evident in those cases that it is my head, Peter's arm, or my 
wrist, which is alluded to*. Therefore, the addition of the possessive 
adjectives ma, son, mon, would add nothing to the meaning. 

It is not so when we say: 

Je vois que le bra3 enfle, I see that the arm is smelling. 

Pierre a perdu P argent, etc., Peter has lost money. 

In such cases the signification is ambiguous. It is not exactly 
known whose arm is swelling, nor whose money has been lost by 
Peter. The ambiguity will disappear when we say j 

Je vois que mon bras enfle, I see that my arm is sxcelling. 

Pierre a perdu son argent, Peter has last his money. 

593. To express customary things, possessive adjectives are used 
also. 



GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

.1/(7 migraine m'a repris. My headache ha* returned. 

. Ton rhuniatisine se ealnie, Thy rheumatism is abating. 

I urmente, Hi* gout torment* him. 

594. 'VThen connected with several units taken collectively, con- 
veying to the mind ideas of plurality, the possessive adjectives noire, 
voire, leur, are used in the plural. In other cases they remain in 

the singular. 

Ex.: 

Tons ces maris £ talent an bal avec All those husbands had their mines to 

lenrs femmes. :V*- mmU. 

lames avaient des fleurs sur lenrs Those ladies had Jlowers on their hats. 

chapeanx, 

: perdn leu: 5 Those children have last their fathers. 

leux ne"gociants ont rendn lenrs Those two merchants ham? sold their 

maisons, houses. 

N u attendions nos voitnres, waited for our carriages. 

Mesdames. vons avei onblie" vos £ven- Ladies, you have forgotten your fans*. 

tails, 

Singula sea. 

Ex. : 

H ::- pfere, :re ■£■«, lev. 7 ?:enr, Our father, your mother, their sister. 

>::re maison. voire voitnre, lenr Our house, your carriage, their horse, 
cheval, 

In the first example m are collectively expressed under the 

plural form: each of the | -roken of having only one m 

one hat, one father, one carriage, or one fan. Consequently, there 
must be several wives, hats, fathers, houses, carriages, and fans. 

The use of the singular in such cases would be a violation of gram- 
mar and common sent ing that there was but one wife for 
:-X husbands, a single hat for several ladies. 

The following examples are a further confirmation of this rule: 

Ex.: 



Les £ponx s'interrompaient entre (438) The husbands interrupted i 
enx pour parler de I toil; about their witn 

ndei a The tender cares you 

utes parents cause every mother to desire 

les meres de Tons donner pour to hare you as a- wife to her son, 

Qnelqnes matelots fnmaient lenrs pipes Some sailors silently smoked their pipes* 
en silence, 

595. Exception. — Independently of the collective idea, when con- 
nected with substai. do plural (in this acceptation, at 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 263 

least), noire, voire, leur, are used in the singular (288). Such are, in 

the two languages : 

Humanite, faim, soif, saute, etc.. Humanity, hunger, thirst, health, etc. 

Ex.: 

Messieurs, moderez votre impatience, Gentlemen, moderate your ardor. 
Goulus, ealmez votre faim en mangeant, Gluttons, appease your hunger by eating. 
Je plains leur sort, I pity their fate. 

Mesdames, moderez votre curiosite, Ladies, moderate your curiosity. 

Because with the acceptations which those words have, we could 
not say: des sarnie's, des impatiences, des sorts. 

With different significations we might say, in French: 

Ex.: 

Les impatiences que causent la colere Outbreaks. of anger are deplorable. 

sont funestes, 

Les santes les plus robustes sont le The strongest health is the result of 

fruit de la sobriete, sobriety. 

Les sorts malheureux sont a plaindre, Unfortunate destinies are to be pitied. 

596, Son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, cannot be used for things, unless 
the possessor substantive or pronoun stands for subject in the same 
proposition (454). 

Ex.: 

La campagne a ses agrements, The country has its advantages. 

Ces langues ont leur beautes, Those languages have their beauties. 

Chaque chose a son bon cote, Every thing has its proper side. 

f Les agrements ^ ( De la campagne. 

Queries : < Les beautes > de quoi ? Answers : < De ces langues. 
( Le bon cote J ( De chaque chose. 

Campagne, langues, chaque chose, are the possessor substantives. 
Being subjects in sentences wherein occur the possessive adjectives 
ses. leurs, its, theirs, the preceding expressions are grammatical. 
But we could not say : 

J'habite la campagne, ses agrements sont sans nombre (454:). 
Ce3 langues sont riches, j'admire leurs beautes. 

Because the possessor substantives campagne, langues, are not 
subject in the propositions wherein occur the possessive adjectives 
ses, leurs. Son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, in those cases, are replaced by 
the pronoun en, answering to of it, of them, etc. (374). 

Ex.: 

J'habite la campagne ; les agrements I reside in the country ; such a residence 

en sont sans nombre, has many advantages. 

Ces langues sont riches: j 'en admire Those languages are rich; I admire their 

les beautes, beauties. 



GRAMMAR, 
i, on the contrary, may be used for both persons and things 

Ex.: 
De lui on n'ew parle | e speaks of him. 

De cela on en cause. Of that they are talking. 

D ? elle, helaa! on n'y songe pins, Of her, alas! no one any longer thinks. 

59?. Exception. — Son, sa, ses, leur, leiirs, are used when the pos- 

-tantiye is complement of a^ H4), though not 

subject in the proposition where the possessive adjectiye occurs. 

Paris est nne yille remarqnable, les Paris is a remarkable place, foreigners 
-ngers admirent la beaute de admire the beauty of its public 

■W6dififl«% buildings. 

In the preceding example there are two propositi ons, — :>ne princi- 
pal absolute or independent (476), " Paris est une yille remarquable f 
the other principal relati- strangers admirent la beaute" de ses 

6dificT 

5 98. Aucun, meaning pas un, not any, preceding substantives 
precludes the idea of plurality. It is the same with nul, no one, not 

no, when placed before substantia 

Ex.: 

Aucun chemin de fleurs ne conduit a Xo floicery path leads to glory. 

la g] 
Xul homme ne pent s'en ya: Xo man can boast of it. 

Remark. — Verbs standing in the same pror with those 

words must be used nega: i shown in the preceding examples. 

Do fkOi say: 

Aucun s monstres, monsters. 

No Romans, 

Though grammatical in English, such expressions are incorrect in 
Trench; aucun, nul. in that language exclude generally the idea of 
plurality. 

599. Except ion. — Aucun, mil, take the plural mark when pre- 
ceding common substantiyes haying no singular. 

Ex.: 

Annaies. ancetres 255 , Annals, ancestors, 

or with substantiyes haying a different meaning in each number, 
such as troupes, gages, answering to troops, wages, in the plural, or 
. token, in the singular. 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 265 

Ex.: 

Aucunes funerailles n'ont eu lieu, Xo funerals have taken place. 

Aucunes troupes ne sont mieux payees, No troops are better paid. 

Nuls des gages ne sont dus, etc., Xo wages are due. 

Remark. — Xul, indefinite adjective (370), must not be confounded 
with the same word used as qualifying adjective. In the first 
acceptation, nul precedes common substantives, answering to no in 
English. In the second, it follows them (319, 579) and adds a qua- 
lity to those substantives, answering to void, worthless, in English. 

Ex.: 

Ses progres sont nuls, His progress is of no account. 

Leurs menaces sont nulles, Their threats are void. 

Nulles sont ses craintes, Vain are his or her fears. 

The last example contains an inversion (861). The direct con- 
struction would be : 

Ses craintes sont nulles, His or her fears amount to nothing (367). 

600. Chaque, every, is always followed immediately by a sub- 
stantive. 

Ex.: 

Chaque pays a ses coutumes parti- Every country has its peculiar customs. 

culieres, f 

Chaque homme a son caractere propre, Every man has a temper of his oicn. 

Chaque objet est marque d'un chiffre, Every object is marked by a figure. 

Do not say: Ces volumes coutent cinq francs chaque, instead of 
saying with a pronoun : 

Ces volumes coutent cinq francs chacun Those volumes cost five francs each. 
(386), 

601. Meme is adjective or adverb. 
Meme, the same, is an adjective: 
(1.) When preceding substantives. 

Ex.: 

Vous retombez dans les memes alarmes, You are seized by the same fears, 

(2.) When placed after a pronoun or a single substantive. 

Ex.: 

Les dieux eux-mSmes devinrent jaloux The gods themselves became jealous of 

des bergers, shepherds. 

Ces murs memes, seigneur, peuvent Those same walls, my lord, may have 

avoir des yeux, eyes. 

602. Remark. — In the last example, same, in English, might 
be replaced by the adverb even; but this modifies the meaning 



2$<y GRAMMAR. 

603. Menie. even, is an adverb: 

(1.) When modifying verbs (568). 

Ex.: 

Exempts de inaux reels, les hommes Free from real evih, men will even 
s'en forment nieme de chimeriques, create to themselves chimerical one*. 

(2.) When signifying aussi. also, which occurs often after two or 

more substantives succeeding to each other. 

Ex.: 

Les animaux. les plantes meme, £taient Animals, even plants, ranked among 
au nombre des divinites Egypti- Egyptian deities. 

ennes, 

Viz. : Les animaux, les plantes aussi, Animals, plants also, ranked, etc. 
etc., 

604. Quelque is written in three different ways. 

(1.) When followed by a verb, it is divided into two words, quel 
que. Quel, adjective, agrees in gender and number with the subject 
of the verb, while the. conjunction que remains invariable (419). 

Quel que, in such cases, answers to however, in English. 

Ex.: 

Quels que soient les humains, il faut Hoicever be mortal men, we must live 
vivre avec eux, with them. 

(2.) Followed by substantives, it is written as a single word, and 
its meaning is partitive (537). Then quelque is adjective, agreeing 
in gender and number with those substantives according to rule 358. 

Ex.: 

Princes, quelques raisons que vous me Prince, whatever reasons you might give 

puissiez dire, . me. 

Quelques hommes, quelques fruits. Some men, some fruits. 

fi a quelque courage, quelque fortune, He has some courage, a little fortune 

(53- 

(3.) Followed by modifiers — either adjective, participle, or adverb 

— quelque, whatever, becoming adverb, remains invariable (390). 

Ex.: 

Quelque puissants qu'ils soient, Whatever be their power. 

Quelque consideres que nous soyons, Whatever be the consideration we enjoy. 

Quelque adroitement qu'il3 s'y pren- Whatever be the skill of their manage- 
nent, ment. 

604 bis. Remark. — Quelque must be written with variation in 
the following example: 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 267 

Quelques grande3 richesses que vous Whatever riches you possess. 
possediez, 

Because in cases where substantives are placed after or before ad- 
jectives, the substantive is the governing word. Therefore, becom- 
ing adjective, quelque agrees with the substantive following it 
(604-2). 

Ex.: 

Quelques bonnes raisons que vous lui Whatever the good advice given, he 
donniez, il n'ecoute nersonne, listens to nobody. 

605. Quelque must never be replaced by tel que, used always 
with the indicative mode. 

Therefore do not say: Tel qu'il soit, tel riche que vous soyez,telles 
richesses que vous ayez. 

Using the subjunctive mode, say: 

Ex.: 

Quel qu'il soit, Whoever he is. 

Quelque riche que vous soyez, How rich soever you are. 

Quelques richesses que tous ayez, Whatever be the fortune you own. 

Quelconque comes always after nouns. It takes the plural, and is 
indeclinable for gender. e 

Ex.: 

Un travail quelconque fait, Any work done, or a icorh done, what- 

ever it be. 

Des lignes quelconques etant tracees, Some lines being marked, or any lines 

whatever, etc. 

Deux points quelconques obtenus, Any two points obtained, or two points, 

etc. 

605 bis. Certain, not meaning sure, positive, when placed before 
nouns, is a determinative adjective, answering to some, in English. 
It agrees in gender and number with those nouns. 

De certains hommes, de certaines fern- Some men, some ladies or women, some 
mes. de certains rapports, de cer- reports, some histories. 

taines histoires, 

'With that signification it always precedes plural nouns, as shown 
in the above examples. 

When answering to sure, positive, in English, it is placed after the 
nouns it qualifies, and becomes adjective. 

Ex.: 

Cet homme est certain de ce qu'il dit, That man is sure of what he says. 

Cette nouvelle est certaine, That news is positive. 

On nous a donne" cela pour certain, They gave it to us as a truth. 



268 GRAMMAR. 

Connected with indeterminate nouns, as a modifier, it gives them 

a vague signification. 

Ex.: 

Un certain monsieur, une certaine dame A certain gentleman, a certain lady, 
(368). 

This expression is used in both languages. 

606. Tout is adjective or adverb (319, 390) : tout, every, is adjec- 
tive when meaning chaque, en totalite, the whole. 

It agrees in gender and number with the substantives or pronouns 
with which it is connected, answering sometimes to tout le monde, in 
English everybody, all, etc. 

Ex.: 

Tout homme, toute femme, Every man, every woman. 

Tous les hommes, toutes les femmes All men, all women. 

(354), 

Nous sommes tous sujets a la mort, All mankind is doomed to death. 

Ici tout le monde parle tout a la fois, Here all talk at once. 

607* Tout is adverb, consequently invariable, when answering 
to tout-a-fait, quelque (604-3), quite, as. It precedes adjectives, par- 
ticiples, or adverbs (935, 741). 

Say in the indicative mode, In the subjunctive mode, 

{spirituels qu'ils sont, ( spirituels qu'ils soient. 

eVeillees qu'elles sont, Quelque < eveillees qu'elles soient. 

elegamment qu'elle est vStue, ( Slegamment qu'elle soit 

vetue. 

608. Exception. — When the adjective or participle following 
tout is feminine, beginning with a consonant or h aspirate, though 
an adverb, tout will agree in gender and number with that word. 

Ex.: 

II est tout stupefait, elle est toute stu- He is completely astounded, she is com- 

pefaite, pletely astounded. 

Toute hardie qu'elle est, Daring or barefaced as she is. 

Toutes detestees qu'elles sont, Detested as they are. 

But we cannot say, toute aimable, toute agre'able, toute iveille'e, 
because neither of those words begins with a consonant or h aspirate. 
These variations are made for the sake of euphony. According to 
this and the preceding rule, it may be said, with different meanings : 

Ex.: 

Mes habits sont tous dechire's (606), or My clothes are all torn (meaning 

the whole of them). 

Mes habits sont tout dSchires (607), My clothes are quite torn (meaning 

much torn). 



SYNTAX OF THE DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVE. 269 

Tout is used substantively when preceded by the forms of the 

article or determinative adjectives, answering to the whole, in English. 

Ex.: 

Le tout vaut mieux que la partie, The whole is better than a part. 

M on tout et le sien sont egaux, What I have and what he has are equal. 

In the following expressions : 

Tout me chagrine, tout me fatigue, etc., Every thingjpcuns me, every thing tires 

me, etc., 

there is an ellipsis in French, as shown in the English example. The 

substantive chose, thing, is understood. 

Repetition of the Determinative Adjective. 

609. Determinative adjectives are repeated in the same cases as 
those in which the forms of the determinate article are repeated (550). 

1st. Before every substantive. 

Ex. : 
Ces omciers et ces soldats, These officers and soldiers. 

Ses oncles et ses tantes, His uncles and aunts. 

Votre pere et voire mere, Your father and mother. 

This repetition of the determinative adjective, optional in English, 
must be rigorously observed in French. 

From these examples we may see the incorrectness of the follow- 
ing French expressions: 

Ces offlciers et soldats, ses oncles et tantes, vos pires et meres, etc. 

where determinative adjectives are not repeated before every sub- 
stantive. 

2d. Before two qualifying adjectives connected by et, and, when 
they qualify different substantives. 

Ex. : 

Ces grandes et ces petites maisons, Tliose large and those small houses. 

Vos bonnes et vos mauvaises actions, Your good and your bad actions. 

Therefore, speaking of houses at once large and handsome, of 
actions equally fine and good, let us not say, against the rules of 
grammar : 

Ces grandes et ces jolies maisons, vos bonnes et vos belles actions, etc. 

Good practice requires : 

Ex.: 

Ces grandes et jolies maisons, Those large and pretty houses. 

Vos bonnes et belles actions, Your good and fine actions. 

In these two examples, the adjectives qualifying the same substan- 
tive, there is unity in the idea to be expressed. 



270 GRAMMAR. 

Dropping of Determinative Adjectives. 

Remark. — When the substantives madame, mademoiselle, are pre- 
ceded by qualifying or determinative adjectives, or by the forms of 
the article, the possessive adjective ma, my, must be dropped. 

Ex.: 

La dame et la demoiselle sont arrivees, The old and the young lady have 

arrived. 
Ma bonne demoiselle, excusez-moi, My good miss, excuse me. 

Certaine dame m'a dit cela, A certain lady told me so. 

The compound substantive monsieur is not subject to this rule 
(1187 bis). It retains the possessive mon, though preceded by the 
form of the article, a qualifying or determinative adjective. 

Ex.: 

Le monsieur est arrive hier, The gentleman arrived yesterday. 

Mon bon monsieur, excusez-moi, My good sir, excuse me. 

Un certain monsieur vous demande, A certain gentleman asks for you. 

Remark. — Like the forms of the article, determinative adjectives 
are dropped to give more rapidity to expression (55^) and conciseness 
to thought. 

Ex.: 

Amis, enfants et compagnons d'infor- My friends, children, and fellow-suf- 
tune, ferers. 

Standing for: mes amis, mes enfants, et mes compagnons d'in- 

fortune. 

QUESTIONS. 

583. Parmi les adjectifs determinatifs quels sont ceux qui sont 
variables? 584. Quand est-ce que vingt et cent rejettent la marque 
du pluriel? 585. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur ces deux adjec- 
tifs determinatifs ? 586. Comment ecrit-on mille f 587. Dans quel cas 
la contraction mil n'a-t-ellepas lieu en computant les ann6es des temps 
ecoules? 588. Comment 6crit-on mille quand il signifie dixfois cent? 
589. Dans quel cas mille est-il substantif ? 590. Les autres ad- 
jectifs numeraux sont-ils variables ou invariables? 591. Pourquoi 
million et milliard prennent-ils le signe du pluriel ? 592. Quel est 
le cas ou Particle determine remplace l'adjectif possessif ? 593. Quels 
determinatifs emploie-t-on pour indiquer une chose habituelle ? 594. 
Quand emploie-t-on au pluriel les adjectifs possessifs notre, votre, 
leur? 595. Quelle est Texception a cette regie? 596. Dans quel 
caspeut-on employer les adjectifs possessifs son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, 
dans une phrase, et quand leur emploi devient-il fautif ? 597. Quelle 



MAX OF THE PRONOUN. 271 

est Pexception a cette regie ? 598. Dans quel cas aucun exclut-il 
toute idee de pluralite ? 599. Quand prend-il le signe du pluriel ? 
600. Qu - k faire remarquer sur Femploi de Tadjectif deter- 

minatif chaq lies sont les diverses acceptions de mime t 

602. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur ces exemples ? 603. Quand 
ce mot est-il adverbe ? 604. Comment ecrit-on quelque, et quels sont les 
divers emplois de ce mot ? 604 bis. Quoique adverbe dans quel cas 
ce mot est-il variable ? 605. Peut-on remplacer quelque par tel 
que? 6 ^uelles sont les significations de certain? 606. 

Quelles sont les acceptions de tout ~ Dans quel cas ce mot 

-il adverb- Dans quel cas quoique adverbe est-il variable, 

et faites-nous connaitre la cause de ces variations? 609. Quand 
repute-ton les adjectifs determinatifs ? quand ne faut-il pas les 
re* peter? 



CHAPTER SIXTH. 
Pronouns (371). 
Their General 

610. Indeterminate substantives (541), — viz.: used without forms 
of the determinate article or determinative adjectives, — whenever 
forming a single idea with verbs or prepositions following them, 
cannot be represented by pronouns, because verbs joined to indeter- 
miiia re only substitutes for one verb, as prepositions 
coupled with substantives are equivalent to simple adverbs. 

rding to this general principle, we cannot represent by 
pronouns 371 - v/ostantives found in such expressions as these : 

(1.) Faire grace, faire reponse, faire To grant pardon, to answer, to frighten, 

peur, demander conseil, avoir con- to ask advice, to have confidence, 

fiance, mettre en mer, etre en to put to sea, to be in good health, 

sante, entrer en campagne, etc., to begin a campaign or a job, etc., 

because these expressions, as rendered in some of the English 
examples, answer to a simple verb : 

Pardonner, to forgive ; repondre, to answer; effrayer, to frighten, etc. 

611. '.. Avec honnenr, avec po- With honor, with politeness, etc. 
litesse, etc., 

corresponding to an adverb, viz. : honorablement, poliment, honorably, 
politely. 

24 



272 GRAMMAR. 

612. Therefore, we must not make use of such expressions as : 

Je vous fais grace, et elle est meritee : Quand on est en sante il faut tont faire 
pour la conserver; II m'a recu avec une politesse qui m'a charmed 

613. To be correct, those sentences must be constructed with 
determinate substantives ; i.e. substantives preceded by the forms of 
the article or determinative adjectives (305, 358, 366). 

Therefore say : 
Ex.: 

Je vous accorde votre grace, et elle est I grant your pardon, and it is deserved. 

meritee, 

Quand on jouit de la sante il faut tout When xce enjoy health, we must do every - 

faire pour la conserver, thing we can to maintain it. 

II m'a recu avec une politesse qui m'a He received me with a charming polite- 

charme, ness. 

614. But it would be correct to say : 

En devenant capable d'attachement on In becoming susceptible of attachment, 
devient sensible a celui des autre*, we become sensible of the attach- 

ment of others. 

Us ne se nourissent que de sang, et ne They only feed on blood, and wish to 
desirent le boire que dans le crane drink it in the skull of their ene- 

de leurs ennemis, mies. 

Though used here indeterminately, the substantives attache; 
sang, do not form unity of idea with the words (verbs or prepositions) 
whose signification they complete, which was not the case in the 
expressions faire grace, faire peur, avec honneur, avec politesse, etc. 
(581). 

615* When the genius of the French language does not admit the 
forms of the article or determinative adjectives before substant ves, 
a new construction must be adopted. 

A sentence like this : 

" Quand nous mimes en mer, elle 6tait paisible," 

must be constructed in the following manner : • 

Quand nous nous embarquames la mer When we embarked, the sea was calm, 
etait paisible, or quand nous mimes or when we set sail, 

a la voile, etc. 

the genius of the French tongue not admitting of such an expression 
as this, "quand nous mimes en la mer," the preposition en, as will 
be seen when we come to treat of the syntax of that preposition, 
being used only before indeterminate nouns (825), unless when 
standing for pendant, during. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 273 

616. Pronouns must not be repeated in different connections, i.e. 
to represent different objects: therefore do not use such construc- 
tions as the following : 

u Samuel offrit son holocauste a Dieu, et il lui fut si agreable qu't7 lanca la 

foudre contre les Philistins." 
u On apercoit dans cet ouvrage un certain mystdre qu'on tache de nous 

cacher." 
*' J'ai lu avec plaisir cet ouvrage, qui a ete" compose par une personne qui est 

versee dans les sciences qui ont pour objet l'etude de la nature/' 

In the first example, the pronoun il, he, represents in the first 
place holocaust, in the second place God. 

In the second, the first on, we, they, represents the reader, the 
second the author. 

In the third example, qui, which, represents in the first instance 
the work ; in the second qui, who, represents person; in the last, qui, 
which, represents science. 

61*7. To make the foregoing sentences correct, by diminishing the 
number of pronouns, we must in the same proportion reduce the 
connections. 

Samuel offrit son holocauste, et Dieu Samuel offered his holocaust : so agree- 
le trouva si agreable qu'il lanca able ivas it to God that the Al- 
ia, foudre, etc., mighty sent, etc. 

Le leeteur apercoit dans cet ouvrage The reader may perceive in that work 

un certain mystere qu'on tache de a sort of mystery which it is at- 

lui cacher, tempted to conceal from him. 

J'ai lu avec plaisir cet ouvrage, com- I have with pleasure read that booh, 

pose" par une personne versee dans composed by a person well ac- 

les sciences qui ont, etc., quainted with sciences whose ob- 
ject is, etc. 

618. Pronouns should never be used ambiguously. We must 
not say : 

Virgile a imite Homere dans tout ce qu'il a de beau ; 

because the pronoun il seems equally related to Virgil and Homer 
(711). 

To be correct and clear, we should say : 

Virgi e a imite Homere dans tout ce Virgil has imitated Homer in his 

que celui-ci a de beau, ou, Virgile excellencies, or, In his excellencies 

dans tout ce qu'il a de beau a imite Virgil has imitated Homer, 

Homere, * 

619* Pronouns, for agreement, are subject to the rules given for 
adjectives. See 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561. 



274 GRAMMAR. 



Ex. 



L'hoinme auquel je parle, The man to ichom I speak. 

La femme a laquelle je parle, The iroman to whom I speak. 

Les homines auxquels je parle, The men to ichom I speak. 

Les feuimes auxquellesje parle, The women to whom I speak. 

Deploy erune bravoure. une intrepidite To display an irresistible bravery and 

a laquelle rien ne resiste, courage. 

Montrer un courage ou une prudence To show a courage or prudence worthy 

a laquelle on prodigue des eloges, of praise. 

In the first example, auquel, to whom, is masculine singular, be- 
cause the substantive homme, man, is masculine singular. 

In the second, k laquelle, to whom, is feminine singular, because 
the substantive femme, woman, is feminine singular. 

In the third, auxquels, to whom, is masculine plural, because the 
substantive hommes, men, is masculine plural. 

In the fourth, auxquelles, to ichom, is feminine plural, because 
the substantive femmes, women, is feminine plural. 

In the fifth, laquelle agrees only with the substantive bravoure, that 
substantive and intrepidity being synonymous. 

In the sixth, laquelle agrees with the last substantive prudence, 
because the substantives courage, prudence, are connected by the 
conjunction ou, which gives exclusion to the first substantive. 

To indicate the gender of substantives, pronouns in French are 
never placed before nouns, as they are sometimes in English. In 
French we say : 

Un bouc, une chevre, un chat, une A he-goat, a she-goat, a he-ca<, a she- 
chatte, cat (1203). 



Personal Pronouns (374). 

620. Used as subjects, personal pronouns are placed before verbs 

(21). 

Ex.: ■ 

J'inventai des couleurs, j'armai la ca- I invented pretences, I used calumny. 

lomnie, 
J'intSressai sa gloire, il trembla pour I put at stake his glory, he feared for 

sa vie, his life. 

Tu es le plus jeune, il est le plus vieux, Thou art the youngest, he is the oldest. 

621. Exceptions. — (1.) In interrogations, they go ^fter verbs in 
simple tenses (181) ; in compound tenses, between the auxiliary and 
the participle (182), connected by a hyphen (443). 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 275 

Ex.: 

Par de st6riles voeux pensez-vous Bo you think to honor me by your fruit- 

m'honorer? less vows? 

Oil suis-je, oil vais-je, qu'ai-je fait? Where am I, whither am I going, what 

have I done ? 
Venez-vous, viendront-ils ? Do you come, will they comet 

(2.) In some exclamatory phrases. 

Ex.: 

Parle-t-il! Est-il cruel! Est-il fourbe ! How he talks! How cruel he is ! Hoxo 

false he is I 

(3.) When verbs are in the subjunctive mode without the enuncia- 
tion of conjunctions. 

Ex.: 

Puisse-je de mes yeux y voir tomber With my own eyes may I see the thunder- 
la, foudre ! bolt fall there! 

Dusse-je apres dix ans voir mon palais After ten years should I see my palace 
en cendres ! consumed ! 

(4.) When verbs form propositions announcing quotations, or 

words from persons other than the actual speaker. 

Ex.: 

Je ne serai heureux, disait-il, que / will be happy, said he, only when 
quand vous le serez, you are so. 

622. (5.) When verbs are preceded by one of the following words: 

Aussi, peut-etre, encore, toujours, en So, perhaps, yet, always, in vain, at 
vain, du moins, au moins, ainsi, least, thus, suddenly, etc. 

sur-le-champ, etc. (871), 

Ex.: 

Aussi est-il votre ami, peut-^tre avez- Therefore he is your friend, perhaps 

vous raison, en vain ferez-vous you are right, in vain you may do 

cela, du moins serons-nous cer- it, at least we will be certain, at 

tains, au moins aura-t-il fini, etc. least he will have done, etc. 
(952), 

These exceptions, however, are not to be rigorously observed. It 
is optional to say: 

Aussi il est votre ami, En vain vous ferez cela. 

Peut-etre vous avez raison, Au moins il aura fini. 

Du moins nous serous certains, Sur-le-champ nous le ferons. 

But in such constructions there is a want of grace, producing a 

languishing style which we recommend the pupil to avoid in making 

-application of the rule. 

24* 



276 



GRAMMAR. 



Personal Pronouns used as Complements or Objects of Verbs. 

6*23. Used as complements, contrary to English syntax, personal 
pronouns in French are placed before verbs. 

Ex.: 
Les ennemis des Juifs wi'ont trahi, The enemies of the Jews have betrayed 

wi'ont trompe, and deceived me. 

Je viens chercher Hermione en ces Here I seek Hermione to subdue her re- 

lieux, distance, take her with me, or die. 

La nechir, Fenlever ou mourir a ses 
yeux, 

With verbs having two complements, one direct, the other indirect, 
if not of the third person the pronoun indirect object preceding the 
direct must be placed after the subject of those verbs. 

Ex.: 

Tu me le donnes, } ( Tu donnes cela a moi, Thou givest it to me. 

H te le prete, > . , < II donne cela a toi, He lends it to thee. 

Vous me le donnez, J ■ ° ( Vous donnez cela a moi, You give it to me. 

Differing in the grammatical construction, the two languages agree 
with the mental one in French. Should the indirect complement 
be a pronoun of the third person, it must be placed after the direct 
object (72, 74). For exception, see number 265.* 

Ex.: 



Vous le lui donnerez, 
II le leur pretera, 
Vous le Km avez donne, 



Vous donnerez cela You will give it to 

& lui, him. 

H pretera cela d He will lend it to 

eux, them. 

Vous avez donne" You gave it to him, 
cela d lui etc., 

Remark. — With reflective verbs (93), objective pronouns precede 
always the other complement of those verbs, whether the pronouns 
be direct or indirect complements. 

Ex.: 

Je rappelle cela a I remember that. 



Je me le rappelle, 
H se le rappelle, 
Us se le prStent, 



H rappelle cela a He remembers that. 

lui, 

lis pretent cela a They lend that to 

eux, themselves. 



Exceptions. — (1.) When pronouns indirect objects (74) are preceded 

by prepositions, they are placed after verbs. 

*Ex.: 

Je vais a lui, je parle a eux, je parlais / go to him, I speak to them, I spoke 
d'eux, of them. 



II se le donne. for: il donne cela a lui. h* gives that to him. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 277 

Except when using the conjunction que with such pronouns indirect 
objects. 

Ex.: 

C'est a lui que je parle, c'est d'eux que It is to him I speak, it is of them we 
nous parlons, c'est a vous que je speak, it is to you I speak, 

m'adresse, 

(2.) When verbs in the infinitive are dependent on other verbs, 
pronouns complements of the infinitives may be placed before the 
governing verb or before those infinitives. 

We may say: 

Ex.: 

Je viens row* chercher; ou, je vous viens I come for you, 

*chercher, 

Tu trahis mes bienfaits, je veux les Thou betrayest my gifts, I will renew 

redoubler; ou, je les veux, etc., them. 

Le myrte ne doit se cueillir qu'apres la Myrtle is to be gathered after palms, 

palme; ou, ne se doit cueillir, etc., answering to Glory goes before love. 

(3.) Verbs in the imperative mode have complements placed after 
them. 

Avant de m'avilir, ciel, ouvre-moi la Before I become contemptible, God, 

tombe, let me die ! 

Pends-/oi", brave Crillon, Ton a vaincu Hang thyself, brave Crillon, victory has 

sans toi, been won without thee. 

When, however, imperatives are used negatively (40), pronouns 
complements retain their place before verbs. 

Ex.: 

Ne me trompez pas. Ne lui donnez Do not deceive me. Give him nothing, 
rien, 

62-4. Remarks. — (1.) Where there are two imperatives connected 

by the conjunctions et, ou, and, or, the pronoun complement of the 

last imperative may precede it. Instead of saying: arrachez-moi le 

jour, La Harpe has expressed himself thus: 

Laissez-moi cette chaine, et m'arrachez Leave me that attachment, and let me 
le jour, die: 

and in his i( Art of Poetry" Boileau uses the same construction: 

Polissez-le sans cesse et le repolissez, Polish and repolish it. 

625. (2.) When verbs in the imperative mode have two pronouns 
for complements, one direct, the other indirect, the direct goes first, 
as in English sentences. In those cases two hyphens are employed 
(443). 



278 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 



Donnez-le-nioi, ") 
Pretez-le-lui, > answering 

Cedez-le-nous, J 



{Donnez-cela d moi, Give it to me. 
Pretez-cela d lui, Lend it to him. 
Cedez-cela d nous, Yield it to us. 



626. Pronouns direct complements moi, toi, le, la (73), employed 
with the indirect complement y adverb, answering to la, dans cet 
endroit, there, are to be excepted. 

Ex.: 

Envoyez-y-moi, \ C Envoyez-m'y, Send me there. 

Promenes-y-toi, > standing for I Promene-t'y, Walk there. 

Menez-y-le, J ( Menez-Ty, Lead him there. 

62T. Yet it would be better to say, as in corresponding terms in 
English: • 

Ex.: 

Envoyez-moi-la, promene-toi-la, m&ne-le-la. 

628* The repetition of personal pronouns used for subjects is 
obligatory before each verb, when propositions are connected by 
other conjunctions than et, ou, ni, mais (856), and, or, neither, but. 

Ex.: 

Nous detestons les mechants parceque We hate wicked men because we /ear 

nous les craignons, them. 

II est savant quoiqu't7 soit bien jeune, Though very young, he is learned. 

629. With this exception, it is taste, harmony of sounds, and 
above all the necessity of being clear, which must be our guide in 
those constructions. 

We may say with correctness: 

Je dis etje pretends; il etudie et il fait des progres. 

<yr : Je dis et pretend, I say and insist. 

II etudie et fait des progres, He studies and makes progress. 

630. Used as complements, the repetition of personal pronouns 
before every verb in simple tenses is always obligatory (154). Con- 
trary to English syntax, we will say in French : 

Ex.: 

Son visage odieux m'afflige et me pour- His hateful face afflicts and haunts 

suit, me. 

H detourne les yeux, le plaint et le He turns his eyes, pities and revere» 

re>&re, him. 

The repetition of complements, obligatory in French, is not so in 
English. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 279 

631* Before verbs in compound tenses, personal pronouns com- 
plements may or may not be repeated (155). It is correct to say: 

II m'a estime et £1 m'a aime, or II m'a aime et estime, 

Xous les avons attaques et les avons vaincus, or Xous les avona attaqu£s et 
vain: 

Answering to: 
He has esteemed and loved me; we have attacked and vanquished them. 

In those cases, a close examination of the English and French 
constructions will prove of advantage to learners. 

63*2. When forming complements of different kinds, some direct 
some indirect objects, such pronouns must always be repeated (1215, 

Ex.: 

II nous a recompense" et nous a adress£ We have been rewarded by him, and he 
des eloges, has praised us. 

The first nous in this sentence is a direct complement (73); the 
second is an indirect (74). 

633. Used instead of je, moi, 7, the pronoun nous, we, requires 
every dependent word in the singular. Therefore, speaking of one- 
self, a single person may say : 

Ex.: 

H : M sommes digne de sa confiance, We deserve his or her confidence (367). 
ia nous sommes pas cru oblige de We did not think ourselves bound to 
lui repondre, answer him. 

.?, in French, we, in English, stand for je, moi, I, pronouns of 
the first person singular (1208). The same rule appMes to the per- 
sonal pronoun vous, you, used for a single person. 

Ex.: 

Charles, me promettez-vous d'etre sage ? Cliarles, do you promise me to be good ? 

Julie et Amelie, serez-vous studieuses ? Julia and Amelia, will you be studiausf 

Julie et Charles sont bons, mais vous, Julia and Charles are good, but you 9 

~ous n'etes pas bonne Sophia, you are not good like them. 

eomme eux, 

634. The .pronoun sot is always singular (374). In common 
with other pronouns of the third person, it is used for persons and 
things, coming after verbs as indirect complement or object (74). 



280 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Chacun pense £ soi, Every one thinks of himself. 

I/aimant attire le fer d soi, Magnet attracts iron (to itself). 

N'aimer que soi c'est n'aimer personne, To love only ourselves is to love nobody, 

635. Used for persons, it is always with an indefinite signification, 
in connection with words of an indefinite meaning, such as these: 

On, chacun, personne, quiconque, etc., People, every one, nobody, whoever, etc. 

(386). 

Ex.: 

On doit parler rarement de soi, We must seldom speak of ourselves. 

Quiconque rapporte tout a, soi n'a pas IVhoever lives for himself has not many 
beaucoup d'amis, friends. 

Or with infinitives: 

Ex.: 

Xe vivre que pour soi c'est §tre deja To live only for ourselves is already to 
mort, be dead. 

636. Remark. — In sentences where such indefinite words as on, 
quiconque, are not found, to prevent equivocal expressions some 
writers use the pronoun soi in relation to persons. In these cases 
that pronoun is always connected with the subject of the verb, cor- 
responding to himself, herself, used for him, her, in English. 

Ex.: 

En remplissant les volontes de son In accomplishing the will of his father, 
pere, ce jeune-homme travaille that young man works for himself. 

pour soi, 

The complement pour lui, for him, leaving the signification am- 
biguous, we would not know who is represented by the pronoun lui, 
him, whether the father or the son. 

In such case?, lui-meme, elle-meme, himself, herself, might be used 

instead of soi, without leaving room for ambiguity. 

Ex.: 

Ce jeune-homme travaille pour lui-meme, or travaille pour son compte par- 
ticulier, etc. 

637. TThen indirect complements or objects, the pronouns leur, 
lui, elle, eux, elles (71) are used only for persons or personified 
things. 

Speaking of unpersonified objects, the pronouns en, y, must bo 
used (415). Instead of saying: 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 281 

Ex.: 

Cette maison menace ruine. n'approchez pas (Telle, 
Ce cheval est mechant, ne lui touchez pas, 
. Ces bitiments n'etant pas assez grands, je leur ferai ajouter une aile, 

with the personal pronouns y, en, corresponding to it, in English, 
we will sa; 
Ex.: 

N'en approchez Do not come near it (the house). 

H*y touchez p Do not touch it (the horse). 

J'j ferai ajouter une aile, / will have a icing added to it (tke 

building). 

The personal pronouns en, y, answering to d'eux. d'elles. a eux, a 
elles, of him, of her, to him, to her (or of it, to that, when referring to 
things), may be used for persons or things d French. 

Ex.: 

Avez-vous des amis? j'en ai (1243), Have you any friends * I have some. 

Avons-nous des pommes? nous en Have ice any apples* we have some. 

:ns, 

Songez-vous a mon affaire? )'y songe, Are you thinking of my affair? I am, 

Croyez-vous en Dieu. J'y crois, Do you believe in God* I do. 



638. 

The pronouns 



fie, him, masculine singular, *) may represent substantives 

i la, her, feminine singular, > (271), or adjectives used 

:hem, plural for both genders, J I :ivelv | 330, 375, 

906). 

Representing substantives or adjectives used substantively, the 
forms le, la, les, agree in gender and number with those leading 
words. 

Ex.: 

vous Madame dc Genlis? Are you Madame de Genlis* 

Je ne la suis pas (861), I am not, or, I am not her. 

• jus la mire de cet enfant ? Are you that child's mother* 

Je la rail lam, or, lam her. 

let ministres du roi? Are you the king's ministers* 

Nous les sommes, We are, or, ice are them. 

Etes-vous la malade* Are you the sick woman* 

Je la suis, lam, or, I am her. 

Etes-vous les maries* Are you the married ones* 

Kous les sommes, We are, or, we are them. 

Remark. — (1.) Personal pronouns in those cases may be dropped 
with verbs forming the answer in English, but cannot in French. 

(2.) Referring to verbs used interrogatively, the same pronoun 
answers to cela, in French, or so, in English. 



GRAMMAR. 



Ex.: 



Crovei-Tous qu'ils chantent? oui, je le Do you think they ting* ye*, I believe 
cr.is. *o. 

639. When the form le, so, of that pronoun represents adje 
or sir ~. used adjeetively it remains invariable: adje 

having no power to communicate gender or number (577). 

Ex.: 

Madame. ties-Tons maladef Madam, are you sick? 

Je le 5uif. lam so, or, lam. 

Messieurs, etes rons maris* f Gentlemen, are you married ? 

Xous le sommes. We are so, or, we are. 

-yxis ministres? nons le sommes, Are you minhtert? wee are, or are *o. 
:us mere ? je le suis. Are you a mother* I am, or, lam *o. 

In the preceding cases, le, la, les, answer to him, her, them, when 
representing persons; le answering to so refers simply" to qualities 
or modes of existence in subjects. In both cases they represent 
logical attributes (459). 



ESTIONS. 

610. Quels sont les substantifs qui ne peuTent etre repre b 
des pronoms? 611. Dans quel cas un substantif pr£e£d£ d'une pre- 
position equivaut-il a un adverbe? 612. Peut-on se serrir dune 
phrase comme celle-ci : je vousfais graced elle est meritee t 613 . Quelle 
en est la construction grammaticale ? 614. Donnez-nous un exemple 
d'une phrase correcte ou le substantif ait un :ermin6 quoique 

une preposition? 615. Quand le genie de la lan^ 
a l'emploi de Farticle ou d'un adjectif determinatif quelle 
ruction faut-il faire? 616. Peut-on employer les pronom? 
des rapports drffexents? 617. Que faut-il faire pour corriger les 
phrases ou les rapports des pronoms sont confondus ? 618. Quels 
moyens emploie-t-on pour faire disparaitre le sens equiroque de 
pareilles phrases : VirgUe a imiU Homere dans tout ce qu'il a de beauf 

619. Quelles sont les regies qui r£gissent Taccord des pronoms? 

620. Quelle est la place des pronoms personnels employes comme 
sujets de verbe- sont les exceptions a cette r ~_ 

exception est-elle obligatoire ou facultative I 
Quelle est la place ordinaire des pronoms complements des yerbes, et 
quelles sont les exceptions a la regie g£n£rale ? 624. Quelle 
premiere remarque a faire sur les pronoms employes comme comple- 
ments avec le mode impe'ratif? 625. Quelle en e- mde? 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 283 

626. Quels pronoms sont affranehis de cette exception? 627. N'y 
a-t-il pas moyen de se mieux exprimer ? 628. Dans quels cas faut-il 
repeter les pronouis employes comme sujets de verbes? 629. Que 
faut-il faire dans tous les autres cas ? 630. Faut-il repeter les pro^ 
noms employes comme complements ou objets des verbes? 631. 
Dans quel cas est-il facultatif de r£ peter ou de ne pas repeter ces pro- 
noms ? 632. Dans quel cas faut-il indispensablement les repeter ? 

633. Quel nombre reclame pour les mots sous sa dependance le pro- 
nom personnel nous, quand ce pronom est employe pour je ou moi t 

634. Quel est le nombre et la personne du pronom personnel soi? 

635. Comment emploie-t-on ce pronom, et quelle est sa signification? 

636. X' est-il jamais employ^ sans etre aecompagne de pronoms inde- 
finis ? 637. Comment emploie-t-on les pronoms leur, lui, eux, elle, 
elles, comme complements indirects ? 638. Que peuvent representer 
les formes du pronom le, la, les ? 639. Dans quel cas ne s'accorde-t- 
il pas avec les mots qui le precedent ? 

Demonstrative Pronouns (379). 

640. The pronoun ce is employed for subject instead of il, Us, elle, 
elles, in propositions having for attribute a substantive or a pro- 
noun. The demonstrative ce in those cases answers to lie, she, they, 
it, in English (459), and precedes the substantive verb etre, to be. 

Ex.: 

Je lis et relis La Fontaine, c'est mon / read and re-read La Fontaine; he 
auteur favori: c'est celui que je is my favorite author, — the most 

trouve le plus naturel, natural in my opinion. 

Bien loin d'etre des dieux, ce ne 3ont Far from being gods, they are not even 
pas meme des hommes, men. 

C'est mon livre, It is my book. 

The general use of the demonstrative pronoun ce, instead of he, 
she, they, is in accordance with the genius of the French tongue. Its 
proper use requires the attention of English learners. 

641* To give sentences more clearness, precision, or energy, 
the demonstrative ce is often placed before etre, to be. In the three 
following instances it is best to use ce with that substantive verb. 

642. (1.) When sentences begin with the pronoun ce followed 

by a relative pronoun (383) answering to la chose qui in French, or 

what in English. 

25 



284 GRAMMAR. 



Ex. 



Ce qui est certain, c'est que le monde What is positive is that our world %b 

va detravers, out of joint. 

Ce qui importe a l'homme, c'est de What is important for man is the ful- 

remplir ses devoirs, filment of his duties. 

Ce qu'il y a de plaisant, c'est qu'il ne What is the most laughable is, that he 

croit pas so tromper, thinks himself right. 

643* Kemark. — When ttre is followed by a substantive, the 
use of the pronoun ce is obligatory should that substantive be 
plural. 

Ex.: 
Ce que Ton souffre avec le moins de pa- What we suffer least patiently are 
tience ce sont les injustices, injustices. 

This use is optional when substantives are singular. 

Ex.: 

Ce qui merite le plus notre estime est What most deserves our consideration 
ou c'est la vertu, **• virtue. 

In the preceding cases, the demonstrative pronoun ce corresponds 
with what in English. In that language it is not repeated, as it is in 
French sentences. 

644. (2.) When the words preceding etre, standing for attribute, 
form a member of a sentence, as in the following examples where ce 
is not expressed in English. 

Ex. 

Le signe de la corruption des moeurs The sign of corrupted morals in a 

dans un 6tat c'est la multiplicity state is the multiplicity of laws. 

des lois, 

Le plus beau present qui ait gte fait The best present made to mankind, 

aux hommes apres la sagesse c'est besides wisdom, is friendship. 

Pamitie, 

Le plus sur moyen d'avoir des amis The surest means to have friends is to 

c'est d'etre bon et obligeant, be good and obliging. 

What precedes Ure is attribute (463) when we may place it after 
that verb, and when that substantive verb may be preceded by what 
before followed it (27). 

Here we may say : 

"La multiplicity des lois c'est le signe de la corruption des moeurs dans un Stat." 
" L'amitie' est le plus beau present qui," etc. 

Therefore, 

" Le signe de la corruption des moeurs dans un etat," 
" Le plus beau present qui ait ete fait aux homines," etc., 

are attributes of the subject (456). 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 285 

645. Remark. — Should the attribute be composed of a few words, 
the pronoun ce might be dropped before the verb. It would be as 
correct to say in French as in English : 

Ex.: 

La veritable noblesse est ou c'est la True nobility is virtue. 
vertu, 

Expressed proverbially in French as in English, Vrai noblesse est 

vertu (555). 

Le mobile de nos actions est ou c'est Interest is the motor of our actions. 
l'interet, 

646. (3.) Preceded by one or two infinitives, when itre at the 
same time is followed by a substantive used determinately (358 
bis). 

Ex.: 

Etudier les anciens, lire les modernes, The study of ancient writers, and the 
c'est sa principale occupation, reading of modern ones, is his 

main occupation. 

Hire, boire, manger, dormir, c'est tonte Laughing, drinking, eating, sleeping, 
sa vie, constitute his whole life. 

647. Remark. — Should an infinitive stand alone, the pronoun ce 
might or might not be expressed before ttre. 

Ex.: 

Punir c'est un tourment, pardonner est To punish is a torment, to forgive is 

un plaisir, a pleasure. 

Se plaire en tout lieux est, ou c'est le To be pleased everywhere, is the secret 

secret du sage, of the wise man. 

Students may notice that the pronoun ce in those cases is not 
expressed in English by an equivalent word. Ce qui, ce que, when 
placed before verbs, answers to what : 
Ce qui etonne, ce que vous voyez, What astonishes, what you see. 

648. The use of the pronoun ce is indispensable before eHre, when 
that verb is preceded and followed by infinitives. The demonstrative 
ce in such cases answers to it, when expressed in English. 

Ex.: 

Epargner les plaisirs c'est les multi- To spare pleasures is to multiply them. 

plier, 

Obliger ceux qu'on aime c'est s'obliger To oblige friends is to oblige ourselves. 

soi-meme, 

Vovazer a pied c'est voyager comme To travel on foot is to travel as did 

Thales, Platon et Pythagore, Thales, Plato, and Pythagoras. 



286 GRAMMAR. 

Or when the verb etre is used unipersonally with reference to 
epochs past or future. In these cases, the demonstrative pronoun 
ce answers to it in English. 

Ex.: 

C'Stait en Tan mil-huit de notre ere, It was in the year one thousand and 

eight of our era. 

C'Stait au printemps, en ete, en hiver, It was in the spring, in the summer, in 

the winter. 

Ce sera alors a la Noel que vous vien- Then it will he Christmas when you 
drez, come, 

Kemark. — Ce, demonstrative adjective, must not be confounded 
with ce, demonstrative pronoun (380) ; ce, cet, cette, ces, determinative 
adjectives placed before nouns, answer to this or that in English. 

Ex. : 

Ce chapeau, cet homme, cet enfant, This or that hat, that man, this child, 

cette femme, that woman. 

Ce bel homme (337), cette belle femme, That tall man, that tall woman. 
Ces hommes, ces femmes, These or those men, these or thost 

women. 

C'en est fait is a contraction of cela est fait, answering to all is 



649* The pronouns celui, ceux, celle, celles, expressing general 
ideas, require indirect complements to limit their signification. 
This is a rule of general grammar, as shown in the following 
examples : 

Ex.: 

Les defauts de Henri Quatre etaient The failings of Henry the Fourth were 
ceux d'un homme aimable, those of an amicable man. 

Or they require a relative pronoun placed immediately after 
them. 

Ex.: 

Ceux qui font des heureux sont les Those who make men happy are true 
vrais conqu Grants, conquerors. 

Therefore, the prevailing custom is not to have such pronouns 
immediately followed by adjectives or participles. Instead of saying : 

Celle aimable, celle ecrite, 

it is better to say, with a relative : 

Celle qui est aimable, celle qui est She who is amiable, that which is 
Scrite, written. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 287 

650. Great writers of the seventeenth or eighteenth century used 
no other expressions. Should we find among more recent writers 
some exceptions to this rule, we must look upon such examples as 
instances of carelessness in style, violations of grammar and good 
taste. 

651. Cdui-ci, celle-ci, ceci, opposed to celui-ld, celle-ld, cela, point 
to the nearest objects (365 bis) ; celui-ld, celle-ld, point to the 
remotest (417). 

Ex. : 
Voici deux maisons : celle-ci (la plus Look at those houses ; this (the near- 
proche)est la plus elegante; celle- est) is the handsomer ; that (the 

la (la plus elaignee) est la plus farthest) is the more convenient. 

commode. 

652. When speaking or writing, objects mentioned the last being 
nearest, are represented by celui-ci, celle-ci, ceux-ci, celles-ci. Those, 
on the contrary, mentioned the first being most distant, are repre- 
sented by celui-ld , celle-ld, ceux-ld, celles-ld; these forms answer to 
the expressions the former, the latter, in English. 

Ex.: 

Le corps pent, et l'ameest immortelle ; The body perishes, but the soul i* im- 

cependant on neglige celle-ci mortal : nevertheless we neglect 

(l'ame), pour ne s'occuper que de the latter (the soul), and care 

celui-la (le corps), only for the former (the body). 

Remarks. — 1st. Celui-ld, celle-ld, cela, in the foregoing examples, 
correspond to the former, in English ; celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci, to the 
\ The same remark applies to plural caa I 
2d. Preceding complements of substantives, demonstrative pro- 
nouns must be expressed in French, contrary to the English prac- 
tice, where the pronoun object is sometimes understood. 

Ex.: 
J'ai mon livre et celui de mon frere. / have my book and my brother's. 

Men pere garde cette maison et celle My father keeps that house and my 

de ma sceur, lister's. 

answering to : / have my book and that of my brother ; my father keeps that 
house and that of my sister. 

Speaking #f a hat, we will say: 
Ex. : 
Cert celui de mon frere, It is my brother's. 

Here the object possessed, the hat, is understood in English, where 
no pronoun represents it. 

This peculiarity of the Saxon idiom in respect to possessive cases, 
as we have said, has no correspondent in French (304). 



288 GRAMMAR. 

Possessive Pronouns (381). 

653. Possessive pronouns always relate to substantives previously 
mentioned. 

Ex.: 

Tes discours trouveront plus d'acces Your speeches will he more effective 
que les miens, than mine. 

Consequently it is a violation of taste or grammar to begin a 
letter thus : 

" J'ai recu la v6tre en date du," etc., 

a sentence in which la vdtre has no antecedent.* 

In French or English, to be correct we must say : 

Ex.: 

J'ai recu votre lettre en date du 15 / received your letter of the 15th in- 
courant, stant. 

A bad use of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci, celle-ci, etc., pro- 
duces inaccuracies of the same nature. Therefore we must not say : 
Celle-ci est pour vous informer que, etc., This is to inform you, etc. 

Grammatically and logically, say, in the two languages : 
Cette lettre est pour vous informer, etc., This letter is to inform you, etc. 

654. When it is said in French : 

Ex.: 

Le mien et le tien sont la source de tous Mine and thine are the source of all 

les maux, difficulties, 

II n'y a rien du ndtre, There is nothing of ours, 

Les vCtres se sont bien battus, Yours have fought bravely, 

the possessive pronouns mien, tien, notre, votre, are used substan- 
tively (382). In that case they form an exception to the preceding 
rule, and follow the syntax of substantives (504). 

Remark. — Used substantively, those pronouns retain the circumflex 
accent (434), and have no antecedent. 

Ex.: 

Les n6tres et les votres se sont bien Our men and yours fought bravely. 
battus, • 

QUESTIONS. 
640. Comment emploie-t-on le pronom demonstratif ce ? 641. Quel 
est le motif qui fait employer ce pronom avec le verbe eHre ? 642. Quel 

* See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 463-2. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 289 

est le premier cas de cet eraploi? 643. Quand cet emploi devient-il 
obligatoire ? 644. Quand ce menie pronom est-il employe avec le verbe 
etre? 645. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur cet emploi? 646. Quel 
est le troisieme cas oil l'on emploie le verbe etre avec le pronom de- 
monstratif ce ? 647. Quelle est la remarque k faire sur ce cas? 648. 
Quand faut-il obligatoirement se servir du pronom ce devant le verbe 
Gtre? 649. Quelle est la maniere de restreindre le sens general des 
pronoms demonstratifs celui, ceux, celle, celles ? 650. Comment faut-il 
considerer les deviations k cette regie generale ? 651. Comment faut-il 
employer les pronoms demonstratifs celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci, celui-ld, 
celle-ld, cela, quand on d6signe de differents objets? et donnez- 
nous un exemple de cet emploi? 652. Quel sont les mots anglais 
correspondant aux pronoms celui-ci, celui-ld ? 653. Quel sont les 
pronoms possessifs ? 654. Quelle est la remarque k faire sur cette 
regie quand ces pronoms sont employes comme substantifs ? 



Relative Pronouns (383). 

655. Relative pronouns always take the gender, number, and per- 
son of their antecedent (385). 
Ex.: 



Moi qui suis estime, 
Toi qui es estime, 
Lid qui est estime, 
Elle qui est estimee, 
Nous qui sommes estime 8, 
Vous qui etes estimes, 
Eux qui sont estimes, 
XUe* qui sont estimees, 



I icko ow esteemed. 
Thou who art esteemed. 
He xoho is esteemed. 
She io^o m esteemed. 
We who are esteemed. 
You who are esteemed. 
They who are esteemed. 
They who are esteemed. 



Remark. — In the two languages they 'occupy the same place, 
coming next after their antecedent, which in the above sentences is 
the subject. 

According to this rule, it would be incorrect to say : 

Ce n'est pas moi qui se ferait prier. 

The antecedent of qui is moi, pronoun of the first person. In that 
case, qui, being of the first person, requires after it a pronoun of the 
same person. Therefore we should say : 

Ex.: 
Ce nest pas moi qui me ferais prier, It is not I who would be solicited. 

Qui, who. used as nominative of a sentence, though without ap- 



290 GRAMMAR. 

parent antecedent, is a relative pronoun. In the expression, Quk 
ehante, who sings, there is an ellipsis, standing for: 

Quelle est la personne qui chante? Who is the person singing (767) ? 

where the substantive personne, in French, is the antecedent of qui. 
The conjunction que, answering to that (485), must not be con- 
founded with the relative que, having for antecedent the subject of 
the sentence. Connecting two propositions, que conjunction has no 
influence on past participles. On the contrary, when placed before 
past participles conjugated with avoir, to have, the relative que direct 
object requires their agreement (777). 

Ex.: 
Je croyais qu'elle avait acquis plus / thought she had acquired more ex- 

d'experience, perience. 

I/experience qu'elle avait acquise la The experience which she had acquired 

sauva, saved her. 

Ses predications lui firent moins de His preaching gained him fewer prose- 

proselites que ne lui en avait fait lytes than did his death. 

sa mort (799). 

The conjunction que answers to that or than, expressed or under- 
stood in English. The relative que, on the contrary, corresponds in 
English with whom, which, sometimes understood in that language, 
but rigorously expressed in French. 

656. Remark. — Adjectives, not having the faculty of gender or 
number (331), cannot be used as antecedents to relative pronouns. 
So, instead of saying: nous 4tions deux qui ttaient du m§me avis, 
say: 

Nous itions deux qui etions du meme We were both of the same opinion, 
avis (540), 

giving for antecedent to the relative pronoun qui the personal pro- 
noun with which the adjective is connected. Here the adjective deux, 
two, is connected with the pronoun nous, we (372). 

The case would be different should that adjective be preceded by 
the form of the determinate article. Used substantively, that ad- 
jective would become the antecedent of the relative pronoun, with 
faculty of gender and number in common with substantives (330). 

Therefore say: 

Vous Stes le seul qui ait rSussi, You are the only one who has succeeded, 

where the relative qui refers to the adjective seul, used substan- 
tively. • 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 291 

From this remark, we conclude that it is correct to say: 

Nous sommes deux qui avons ete re- We have both been rewarded. 

compenses, 
Nous sommes les deux qui out 6te" re- We are the two who were rewarded. 

compenses, 

In the first sentence qui has for antecedent nous, pronoun modified 
by the adjective deux, two. 

In the second, the adjective deux, used substantively, is the antece- 
dent of that relative. 

Having for antecedent a substantive or adjective used substan- 
tively, qui, who, with the tense of the verb accompanying it, repre- 
sents a third, that spoken q/* (372). Qui, who, having for antecedent 
nous, we, represents a first person the speaker. 

Ex.: 

Nous sommes seuls qui avons 6te We alone have been punished. 

punis, 

Nous sommes les seuls qui ont ete We are the only ones who have been 

punis, punished. 

65T. Relative pronouns must stand as near to their antecedents 
as possible. Their connection with those "words must not be uncer- 
tain or equivocal (385). 

Ex.: 
Je chante ces h§ros qui regna sur la / sing the heroes who reigned over 

France, France. 

La paresse est un vice que les hommes Laziness is a vice which men overcome 

surmontent difficilement, with difficulty. 

Le senat attachait a Rome des rois The Senate was rendering dependent on 
dont elle avait peu a craindre, Rome kings from whom she had 

little to fear. 

Therefore, we must not make use of such ambiguous expressions 



On trouve des maximes dans ces discours qui sont contraires a la morale. 

II y a des lettres dans Pline dont le style est admirable. 

N'avez-vous pas Thistoire de Louis Quatorze dans votre bibliotheque? 

Fasquelle's Method, page 98-15. 

To be correct and clear, connect closely the pronouns qui, dont, 
with their antecedents maximes, lettres, and let the indirect object 
dans votre bibliotlibaue, according to rule (709), go before the direct, 
VJiistoire de Louis Quatorze. Therefore say : 

Ex.: 
On trouve dans ces discours des In those speeches are found maxima 

maximes qui sont contraires contrary to morality. 

a la morale, 



292 GRAMMAR. 

II y a dans Pline des lettres dont le There are in Pliny some letters admU 

style est admirable, rably written. 

N'avez-vous pas dans votre bibliothe- Have you not in your library the hit' 

que Thistoire de Louis Quatorze? tory of Louis the Fourteenth? 

658. Remark. — To give strength to their expressions by means 
of bold inversions, poets sometimes deviate from the above rule (861). 

Ex.: 

La deesse en entrant qui voit la nappe Entering, the goddess found the table- 

raise, cloth spread. 

Phenix income en repond, qui la con- Phoenix himself, who brought her here, 

duite expres, stands security. 

Un prince me poursuit, dont le fatal A prince pursues me whose fatal ge- 

genie, etc. nius, etc. 

659. Qui complement of a preposition is used for persons or 
things (414). According to this general principle we will say, in 
French or English : 

Le bonheur appartient d qui fait des Happiness belongs to those who cause 

heureux, it in others. 

Rochers d qui je me plains, Bocks to which I complain. 

660. Qui or que used for an unpersonified thing is replaced by 
lequel, laquelle, which, that. 

Ex.: 

L'Stude a laquelle je consacre mes The study to which I devote my spare 

loisirs, time. 

Le cheval sur lequel je suis monte, The horse on which I am riding. 

In these examples, relative pronouns indirect objects are expressed 
in the two languages. 

661* Poets do not always strictly observe the above rule. 
Ex.: 

Soutiendrez-vous un faix sous qui Will you sustain a burden too heavy 
Rome succombe, even for Rome? 

Je pardonne a la main par qui Dieu * / forgive the hand with which God 
m'a frappS, strikes me. 

The difficulty of introducing into verse such expressions as sous 
lequel, duquel, etc., arising from their want of grace or harmony, is 
a sufficient excuse for such licenses or violations of rules. 

662* To prevent equivocation, the relative pronouns qui, que, 
dont, are replaced by lequel, duquel (383). Instead of saying: 



• SYNTAX Or THE PRONOUN. 293 

J'ai vu le mari de votre soeur qui viendra me voir, 

Je dois recevoir une lettre de mes enfants que j'attends avec impatience, 

La bonte" de Dieu dont je connais la grandeur me rassure, 

dropping qui, que, dont, and substituting for them the aforesaid rela- 
tive pronouns, we will say: 
Ex.: 

J'ai vu le mari de votre soeur, lequel I have seen your sister's husband, who 

viendra me voir, will come to see me. 

Je dois recevoir une let+re de mes en- / am anxiously expecting a letter from 

fants, laquelle j'attends avec im- my children. 

patience, 

La bonte de Dieu, duquel je connais la The goodness of God, whose greatness 

grandeur, me rassure, I know, reassures me. 

It would be otherwise impossible to distinguish the antecedents of 
qui, that pronoun referring in the same degree to the substantives 
mari and sceur, lettre and enfants. Dont, who, whose, referred equally 
to grandeur and Dieu (618). 

663. Dont, of whom, of which, expresses simple connections 
(383). 

Ex.: 

La personne dont je parle, The person of whom I speak. 

D'ou, from which, whence, expresses the idea of exit, extraction, 
escape, etc. 
Ex.: 

La ville d'ou je viens, The town whence I come. 

Le p6ril d'ou. je sors, The danger which I have escaped. 

Remark. — Before verbs which express ideas of lineage, descent, or 
of being born, dont — not d'oii — must be employed. 

La famille dont elle sort, The family from which she descends. 

Je jure par le ciel qui me voit con- I swear by heaven, which witnesses my 

fondue, confusion, and by those great Otto- 

Par ces grands Ottomans dont je suis mans, from whom I am descended. 

descendue, 

664. The following sentences are examples of bad construction : 

La pluralite des Dieux est une chose qu'on ne peut s'imaginer qui ait 6te 

adoptee par des hommes de bon-sens. 
C'est un proces qu'on a cru qu'on perdrait. 
C'est une entreprise que je ne peux croire qui rgussira. 

Here the redundant use of the words qui, que, renders the meaning 
ambiguous. 



294 GRAMMAR. 

To be concise and clear we should say : 

La plurality des Dieux est une chose We cannot imagine the plurality of 

qu'on ne peut s'imaginer avoir 6te Gods to have been adopted by sen- 

adoptee par des homines de bon- sible people. 

sens, 

C'est un proces qu'on a cru perdre, That icas thought a very bad suit. 

C'est une entreprise a la r6ussite de / cannot believe in the success of that 

laquelle je ne puis croire, undertaking. 

See Appendix, page 596, number 1238 and following. 



Indefinite Pronouns (386). 

665. Masculine singular, on, people, we, they, becomes feminine 
when referring unequivocally to feminine cases, or plural when the 
meaning designates several persons. Adjectives or past participles 
connected with on take both the feminine and plural mark (323, 
265 bis). 

Ex.: 

Quand on est mariie on n'est pas tou- Once married, a woman is not alwayt 
jours maltresse de ses actions, mistress of her actions. 

On nest pas heureux quand on s'aime When people love each other tenderly, 
tendrement et qu'on est separls, there is no happiness in separation. 

666. To prevent disagreeable consonances, it is better to use Von 
instead of on after the conjunctions et, si, ou. 

Ex.: 

Et Ton dit, si Ton voit, ou Ton verra. 

Nevertheless, before le, la, les, on is to be preferred. 

Ex.: 

Et on le dit, si on la voit, ou on la verra. 

In the last example, on is used alone to prevent the unpleasant 
repetition of the articulation Z. Therefore, do not use such expres- 
sions as : Et Von le dit, si Von la voit, ou Von la verra. 

66*7. At the beginning of sentences, on must always be preferred 
to Von, because there are no bad consonances to be avoided. 

Ex.: 

On a tort de se facher, People are wrong to complain. 

Its counterpart in English is people, as we will see farther on 
(1217). 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 295 

667 bis. Quoi, indefinite pronoun, must not be confounded with 
quoi, what! exclamation (747). 

When used with the conjunction que, combined with a pronoun of 
the third person, it answers to whatever, in English (843), used 
exclusively with reference to things. 

Ex. 

Quoi qu'il dise ou qu'il fasse, pen Whatever he says or does, it matters 

importe, little. 

This compound expression must not be confounded with the con- 
junction quoique, though or although, which is often combined with 
the same pronouns of the third person. 

Ex.: 

Cet homme est m£chant, quoiqu'il That man is wicked, though he tries to 

veuille paraitre bon, appear good. 

In the first example, the expression in question forms two words ; 
in the second, a single one. In the first case it is the subject of 
the proposition (456) ; in the last it is a conjunction binding the 
principal proposition with the incidental (485, 476, 477). 

Que ne is a contraction of pourquoi, why (815). 

Ex.: 

Que ne remplissiez-vous pas vos devoirs THiy did you not fulfil your duties to- 
envers Dieu? wards God? 

De quoi may be used idiomatically in the office of substantive in 
the following examples, or may be replaced, advantageously, by more 
harmonious expressions conveying the same meaning. 

Ex.: 



II n'v a pas de quoi, monsieur, 
C'est une famille qui a de quoi, 
C'est precisement de quoi je me 

plains. 
J'ai de quoi payer mon eeot, 

Mon oncle m'a laisse* de quoi vivre, 
Marie, achetez de quoi pour la 

semaine, 
Ce monsieur a mange son de quoi, j 



Monsieur, ce n'en vaut pas la peine, 
Cette famille est a son aise, 
C'est la ce dont je me plains, 

J'ai suffisamment pour paver mon 
Scot, 

Mon oncle m'a laisse* un bel avoir, 
Marie, achetez ce qu'il faut pour la 

semaine. 
Ce monsieur a mange* son bien. 



Never mind that, sir. That family is rich. That is ichat I complain of. I 
have enough to pay my reckoning. My uncle left me a fortune. Mary, provide 
for the week. That gentleman is ruined. 

Though thoroughly French, de quoi should not be used as a sub- 
stantive unless it be desired to convey ideas more forcibly by means 
of the odditv of the expression. 

26 



296 GRAMMAR. 

When we say: Ce monsieur a mange' son de quoi, instead of: Ce 
monsieur a dissipS son bien, we add to the simple assertion the ideas 
of reproof and derision. 

668. With plural nouns or plural substantives, the indefinite 
pronoun cJiacun takes sometimes son, sa f ses, at other times leur, 
leurs, answering to a lui, a elle, d eux (71). 

669. When placed after direct complements, or when verbs have 
no such complements, chacun requires son, sa, ses, 

Ex.: 

lis ont apporte" leurs offrandes chacun Each in turn brought his offerings. 

selon ses moyens, 
•Les deux rois se sont retires chacun The tico kings retired each to his tent. 

dans sa tente, 
lis ont opine* chacun a son tour, Each spoke in turn. 

In the first two examples, the substantive offrandes and the pro- 
noun direct object se answering to eux (73), both preceding chacun, 
are the complements of the active or transitive verbs apporter, retirer 
(77). 

The direct construction of those sentences runs thus : 

Us ont porte Voffrande d'eux, chacun selon ses moyens, 
Les deux rois ont retire* eux, chacun dans sa tente, 

where the words- offrandes, eux, direct objects of the verbs apporter, 
retirer, precede chacun. 

In the last example, the verb opiner has only for indirect com- 
plement a son tour ; chacun in that case having no direct comple- 
ment precediDg it, must be followed by son, sa, ses. 

Should the complement of the verb be determined by words coming 
after it to limit its signification, chacun may be followed by the forma 
of the determinate article. 

Ex.: 
Les trois gSneraux se retirerent chacun Each of the three generals retired into 
dans le palais du roi, the king's palace. 

Remark. — When possession is fully expressed by the context of 
sentences, according to rule (592), the possessive adjectives son, sa, 
ses, leur, leurs, must give way to the forms of the determinate article 
le, la, les, the. 

Ex.: 
Us se sont brllle chacun les doigts, Each has burned his finger #. 

lis se sont foule chacun le ponce, Each sprained his thumb. 

Elles se sont meurtri chacune la main, Each hurt her hand. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 297 

In those cases, the personal pronoun se, answering to d lui, d elle, 
aeux, being an indirect object (74), there is no deviation from the 
general rule. 

Therefore, it is incorrect to say: 

Chacun, relating to a plural which precedes, requires son, sa, ses, 
when following a verb (669). 

Ex.: 

Us ont donne" quelque chose chacun They have given something, each ac- 

selon ses moyens, cording to his means. 

Les juges ont opine* chacun a son tour, The judges stated their opinion, each in 

his turn. 

See Pujol and Tan Xorman, page 164-125. 

To show the fallacy of this rule, in the above sentence drop the 
direct complement quelque chose, and according to the following 
rule 670 we shall have to replace so?i, sa, ses, by leur, leurs, in cases 
where chacun follows a verb. 

Us ont donne chacun leur vie pour leur Each of them gave his life for his 
patrie, country. 

670. When it precedes direct complements (69), chacun requires 
leur (366), leurs. 

Ex.: 

lis ont apporte chacun leurs offrandes, Each brought his offerings. 
lis ont donne chacun leur avis (594), Each gave his advice. 
Elles ont recu chacune leur present, Each received her present. 

The direct construction of those sentences runs thus : 

lis ont porte chacun Voffrande d'eux, Each brought the offering of them. 
lis ont donne chacun I'avis de lui. Each gave the advice of him. 

Elles ont recu chacune le present d'elle, Each received the present of her. 

In these examples the substantives offrandes, avis, present, direct 
objects are preceded by chacun, the pronouns d'eux, de lui, d' elles, 
being indirect objects. 

671. Personne is indefinite pronoun or substantive. 

672. Personne, nobody, indefinite pronoun has always an indeter- 
minate signification. 

It is used without form of the determinate article, or determinative 
adjectives, corresponding with aucune personne, no one, or qui que ce 
soit, whoever it be. It is masculine in gender. 



298 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Personne n'est assez tot pour le croire, Xobody it foolish enough to believe it. 
II n'y a personne qui n'en soit fdche, There is not one who is not sorry for it. 

6?3. Personne, preceded by the forms of the article, or by deter- 
minative adjectives, is a substantive of the feminine gender, answer- 
ing to who, somebody, in English, or to no one, when used negatively. 

Ex.: 

Quelle est la personne assei sotte pour Who is simple enough to believe him 

le croire? (or i 

II n'v a pas une personne qui n'en soit There is no one who is not sorry for iU 

fachee, 

Cette personne est u: at person is foolish. 

1 determinated, it answers to person, as shown in the last ex- 
ample; negatively, it requires pas, to complete its signification (Wt 
answering to no one, nobody, when preceded by the numeral deter- 
minative adjective une (318). In affirmative cases preceded by 
une, it answers to somebody. 

674. L'un et l'autre, lei uns et les autres, each, both, convey to 
the mind ideas of plurality. 

L'un l'autre, les uns les autres, to the idea of plurality add that of 
reciprocity. 

.king of Racine and Boileau, we may say : 

Ex.: 

L'un et l'autre etaient deux grands Both xcere two great poets, the one 
poetes, ils s'estimaient l'un l'au: esteemed the other. 

Les uns les autres, les unes les autres, are indefinite pronoun 
presenting nouns, and must not be called numeral determinative ad- 
jectives used substantively, as does the member of the University of 
Michigan in his Method, page 301-2. 

See number 576 for the use of those words as determinative ad- 
ject: - 

675. Remark. — In cases having more than r 

city must be expressed by U mutually — not by l'un 

l'autre, which should be used only in singular cases. 

Ex.: 

Mille soldats s'excitent les uns les A thousand soldiers exciting themseh 1 1 
autres au combat, mutually to the combat. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 299 

QUESTIONS. 
655. Dites-nous ce que sont les pronoms relatifs? 656. Quels sont 
les mots qui ne peuvent servir d' antecedents aux pronoms relatifs ? 
657. Quelle est la place qu'occupent ces pronoms ? 658. Quelle est 
la remarque a faire sur F application de la regie pr6c6dente? 659. 
Comment emploie-t-on le pronom relatif qui, quand il est le comple- 
ment d'une preposition? 660. L' emploie-t-on avec rapport aux 
choses non personifies? 661. Cette regie est-elle rigoureusement 
observee ? 662. Dans quel cas remplace-t-on le pronom relatif qui 
par lequel, laquelle, duquel, de laquellef * 663. Qu'exprime le pronom 
relatif dontf 664. Donnez-nous quelques exemples de constructions 
vicieuses, et montrez-nous comment on doit les rectifier? 665. Faites- 
nous connaitre le pronom indefini on, et dites-nous quelles sont ses 
particularity s ? 666. Quand emploie-t-on un I euphonique devant ce 
pronom? 667. Dans quel cas ri emploie-t-on jamais If 667 bis. 
Quelles sont les acceptions de quoi? 668. Quels sont les mots qui 
suivent le pronom indefini chacun, quand ce mot est precede d'un 
substantif pluriel? 669. Quand prend-il son, sa, sesf 670. Dans 
quel cas prend-il leur, leursf 671. Quelles sont les classifications 
du mot per sonne f 672. Quand est-il pronom indefini? 673. Quand 
est-il substantif, et quel est son genre? 674. Quelle distinction 6ta- 
blissez-vous entre Fun et V autre, les uns et les autres, d'avee Vun 
V autre, les wis les autresf 675. Comment exprime-t-on la reciprocit6 
quand elle a rapport a un grand nombre de personnes? 



CHAPTER SEVENTH. 

Verb. 
Of the subject (456). Agreement of verbs with their subject. 
676. In personal modes (50) every verb must have a subject. 

Ex.: 
Celui qui met un frein a la fureur des He who curbs the unruly waves 

flots 
Sait aussi des m£chants arreter les Knows also how to check the plots of 

complots, the wicked. 

In the preceding example, there are two verbs in personal modes, 

and two subjects (454). 

26* 



300 GRAMMAR. 

The first verb, met, bridles, has for its subject the relative pronoun 
qui, having for antecedent celui. 

The second, sait, knows, has celui, him (456). 

Being in the infinitive, the third, arreter, to check, has no subject 
(50). 

Therefore such constructions as the following must be avoided : 

En quoi ce prince rgussit parfaitement, fut de reformer les mceurs de son 
peuple. 

Fut, here, is without subject. To be correct we must say: 

La chose dans laquelle ce prince, etc.. The thing in which that prince, etc. 

Here fut, in a personal mode, has for subject la chose, a deter- 
minate substantive. 

671'. According to the preceding principle, every subject must 

have a verb. 

Ex.: 

I/orgueil n'aveugle pas ceux que Pride does not render blind those whom 
rhonneur Sclaire, honor enlightens. 

In this example, there are two subjects and two verbs. Orgueil is 
the subject of aveugle; honneur, that of iclaire. 

We must not, therefore, imitate a certain translator of Roman 
history when he says: 

Je souhaiterais de voir vivre ces valeureuses legions, qui, si elles n'Staient 
pas detruites du moins la republique romaine subsisterait encore. 

This sentence contains four subjects with only three verbs. 

Je, the first subject, has souhaiterais for verb. 

Elles, the second subject, Staient d&ruites. 

Ripublique, the third subject, subsisterait. 

Qui, the fourth subject, has no verb connected with it, expressed or 
understood. 

To take away the irregularity from this phrase, we must say with 
a corresponding number of subjects and verbs: 

Ex.: 

Je souhaiterais de voir vivre ces valcu- I wish I could see alive those intrepid 

reuses legions; si elles n'etaient legions ; were they not destroyed, the 

point detruites, du moins la re- Roman republic might still exist. 
publique romaine subsisterait 
encore, 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 301 

678. Subjects of verbs must not be expressed twice (457), a single 
subject being sufficient for one verb. Voltaire, therefore, cannot be 
taken for model when saying : 

Louis en ce moment prenant son diademe, 
Sur le front du vainqueur il le posa lui-mSme. 

In this example, the verb posa, placed, has for subjects Louis, 
il, when the rule requires a single subject for each verb. Therefore, 
to be correct we mus f write : 

Ex.: 

Louis en ce moment prenant son dia- At that moment, taking his crown, Lewis 
deme, le posa lui-meme sur le placed it on the victor's head. 

front du vainqueur, 

Here the two syntaxes are in perfect concordance. 

679. Verbs agree in number and person with their subject (33, 
34). 

Ex.: 

Je plains l'homme accable du poids I pity the man crushed under the to eight 

de ses loisirs, of leisure. 

soleil! tu parais, tu souris et tu sun! thou appearest, smilest and 

consoles la terre, gladdenest the earth, 

Souvent les richesses attirent les amis, Miches often attract friends, poverty 

et la pauvrete les eloigne, repels them. 

680. Subjects of verbs, when composed of several substantives 
or pronouns, require verbs in the plural. 

Should the words forming the subject be of several persons, verbs 
agree with the person having priority : 

The first person has priority over the second and third ; the second 
only over the third, which is subordinate in rank to the other two 
(372) persons. 

Ex.: 

Plus loin le tambour, le fifre et la trom- Yonder the drum, fife, and trumpet 

pette (517), 

Font entendre des airs que le vallon Resound in tunes repeated by the vale. 

repete, 

T6t ou tard la vertu, les graces, les Sooner or later virtue, amiability, or 

talents, talent 

Sont vainqueurs des jaloux et vengeurs Are victorious over jealousy and wicJced- 

des mechants, ness. 

Narbal et moi nous admirions la bonte* Narbal and I were admiring the good- 

des dieux, qui ont un soin si tou- ness of the gods, who take such ten- 

chant de ceux qui hasardent tout dcr care of those who hazard all for 

pour la vertu, virtue's sake. 

Toi et lui vous e'tes heureux, Thou and he are happy. 



302 GRAMMAR. 

In the last example, the personal pronoun toi, thou, of the second 
person having priority over lui, him, pronoun of the third, the verb 
is put in the second person plural. 

Exceptions. 

681* When several substantives or pronouns are component parts 
of subjects, verbs agree with the last substantive or pronoun forming 
that subject: 

682. (1.) When words forming the subject are synonymous; viz.: 
representing the same idea. 

Ex.: 

Son courage, son intrepidite etonne les His courage and intrepidity astonish 

plus braves, the bravest. 

Le noir venin, le fiel de leurs Merits, The black venom, the gall of their writ- 

N'excite en moi que le plus froid ine- ings 

pris, Excites in me the coldest contempt. 

Though the subject is made up of several substantives, in those 
cases verbs remain in the singular. Unity being in the mind, unity 
or singularity must be expressed by words. 

See the use of et, and, in the particular observations, No. 894. 

683. (2.) When words composing subjects are connected by the 
conjunction ou, or (419). 

Ex.: 

La faiblesse ou ^experience nous fait Wickedness or inexperience leads m into 

commettre bien des f antes (545), many failings. 

Le bien ou le mal se moissonne Good or evil is reaped 

Selon qu'on seme le mal ou le bien, According as good or evil is sowed. 

Choisissez : Pun ou l'autre acMvera Choose : either will put an end to my 

mes peines, sorrows. 

Ou, or, giving exclusion to one of the subjects, as more striking 
to the mind, the agreement must be with the last. 

684. When words connected with ou are of different persons, 
sense requires the verb to be in the plural (911), and custom that it 
should agree with the person having priority (372). 

Ex.: 

Vous ou moi parlerons, You or J will speak. 

Vous ou votre frere viendrez, You or your brother will come. 

Vous et lui serez punis, You and he will be punished. 

685. When words composing subjects are placed in the form of a 
climax or gradation. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 303 



Ex.: 



Ce sacrifice, votre interest, votre hon- Your interest, honor, God, requires that 
neur, Dieu Texige, sacrifice from you. 

The cause of this exception may be thus explained. In a climax 
or gradation the last word always represents the predominant idea, 
-which, absorbing every other, requires attention to be chiefly fixed 
upon it. For noble souls interest vanishes before honor, as earthly 
honor fades away in God's presence. God alone remains as the sub- 
ject, and the verb is governed by that substantive (see No. 894). 

686. When words forming subjects contain expressions summing 
up the ideas expressed by several preceding words. 

For instance : 

Tout, rier, personne, chacun, etc., The whole, nothing, nobody, every one, 

etc. 
Ex.: 

Le temps, le3 biens, la vie, tout est a Time, fortune, life, every thing belongs 

la patrie, to our country. 

Yoisins, amis, parents, chacun prefere Neighbors, friends, relations, every one 

son interet a celui de tout autre, prefers his interest to that of others. 

Such sentences are elliptical (854). They stand for: 

Ex.: 
Le temps, les biens, la vie sont d la patrie, tout est a la patrie. 
Voisins, amis, parents, preferent leur interet a celui de tout autre, chacun 
prefere son interet. 

687. In the last two cases (685, 686) qualifying adjectives and 
verbs are governed by the same rule; viz.: they agree with the last 
substantive (331). 

Ex.: 

Le fer, le bandeau, lafiamme est toute The knife, bandelet, and fire are ready. 

prete, 

La fortune, les honneurs, la gloire, Fortune, honors, glory, every thing was 

tout fut digne de lui, worthy of him. 

QUESTIONS. 

676. Dans quel cas les verbes ne peuvent-ils se passer de sujets? 677. 
Si nous raisonnons par analogie que doit-on conclure de cela? 678. 
Faut-il repSter le sujet devant chaque verbe? 679. Quel est Taccord 
du verbe avec son sujet? 680. Quel nombre prend le verbe quand 



304 GRAMMAR. 

son sujet se compose de plusieurs substantifs? 681. Dans quel cas 
le verbe s'aecorde-t-il en personne avec le dernier substantif ou le 
dernier pronom qui compose le sujet? 682. Quelle est la premiere 
exception a cette regie? 683. Quelle en est la seconde? 684. Que 
fait-on quand les mots reunis par la conjonction ou sont de personnes 
differentes: 685. Quelle est la troisieme exception a cette regie? 
686. Quelle en est la quatrieme? 687. Avec quel mot s'accorde 
Tadjectif qui suit le verbe? 

Remarks on the application of rule 679, having for object the agree- 
ment of verbs icith their subject. 

6SS. (1.) When two subjects, substantives, or pronouns, are con- 
nected by one of the conjunctions or conjunctive expressions, 

Comme, de meme que (485), As, the same as, 

Ainsi que. So, even, 

Aussi bien que,* As icell as, 

verbs must agree with the first subject. In such cases the second 
subject belongs to a verb understood (484). 

Ex.: 

L'enfer comme le ciel prouve un Dieu Hell as icell as heaven proves a just and 
juste et bon, benevolent God. 

La vertu ainsi que le talent a son Virtue, as well as knowledge, has it* 
prix, value. 

In either language such constructions answer to the following: 

L'enfer prouve un Dieu juste et bon. comme le ciel prouve un Dieu juste et 

bon. 
La vertu a son prix, ainsi que le savoir a son prix. 

6SS bis. Adjectives follow the same rule (331), agreeing with 

the last substantive. 

Ex.: 

L'autruche a la tete ainsi que le cou Ostriches have the head as xcell as the 
garni de duvet, neck covered icith down. 

6S9. (2.) L'un et V autre, expressing plurality, require verbs in 

the plural (576). 

L'un et l'autre a ces mots ont leve le Hearing those words, both raised their 
poignard, dirks. 



* For false theories see Pujol and Van Xorman, page 182-214. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



305 



690. (3.) Ni Van ni V autre, or every subject whose parts are 
connected by the conjunction ni, also requires verbs in the plural in 
French, contrary to English syntax. 

J'ai lu vos deux discours : ni Tun ni 1 read your two orations : both are bad, 
Fautre ne sont bons, or, neither is good. 

Ni Tor ni la grandeur ne nous rendent Neither gold nor greatness makes mortals 
heureux, happy, 

691/ Exception. — When one of the words connected by ni can 
alone perform the action expressed by the verb, that verb in French 
is put in the singular. 

Ex.: 

Ni Tun ni 1' autre n'obtiendra le prix, Neither of them will obtain the pre- 
mium. 
Ni M. le due ni M. le cardinal ne sera Neither the duke nor the cardinal will 

nomme ambassadeur a Saint- be appointed ambassador to St. 

Petersbourg, Petersburg. 



692* (4.) After two or more infinitives used as subjects, verbs 
require the plural form. 

Ex. : 



Yivre et mourir seront pour lui la 

meme chose, 
Etre ne" grand et viyre en chr§tien 

n'ont rien d' incompatible, 
Lire trop et lire trop peu sont deux 

deTauts, 



To live and to die are to him the same 

things. 
To be born of high rank and to live as 

a Christian are not incompatible. 
Too much and too little reading are two 
faults. 



693. After several infinitives standing for subjects (64), followed 
by words conveying ideas of unity, we find in some authors examples 
of the verb Ure used in the singular. 

Ex.: 



Bien gcouter et bien rSpondre est tine 
des plus grandes perfections 
qu'on puisse avoir en conversa- 
tion, 

Le fuir et le bannir est tout ce que je 
puis, 



To listen attentively and to answer pro- 
perly is one of the greatest perfec- 
tions in conversation. 

To run from him and banish him is all 
I can do. 



In such cases, the plural is preferable, as more conformable to the 
principles of general grammar (937). 

The above sentences are nevertheless correct; answering to the 
following in signification : 



306 GRAMMAR. 

Une des plus grandes perfections qu'on puisse avoir dans la conversation, 

c'est de bien ecouter et de bien repondre, 
Tout ce que je puis c'est de le fuir ou de le bannir, 

in which, according to rule 686, the words une, tout, require the verb 
in the singular. 

694. When immediately preceded by the pronoun ce, summing 
up the different actions in one, though preceded by several infinitives, 
ttre is used in the singular (685). 

Ex.: 

Hire, boire, manger, dormir, c'est toute Drinking, eating, and sleeping, are the 
son occupation, only occupations he indulges in. 

The pronoun ce, in French, used as & pleonasm (856), sums up the 
preceding infinitives, and gives to the sentence more clearness, pre- 
cision, or strength. The verb agrees with that pronoun ; because it 
is the last word enunciated among the -various subjects, the part to 
which attention is principally directed (685). 

695. (5.) Etre, to be, preceded by ce, is put in the plural, when 
followed by a third person plural (372) either substantive or pro- 
noun. See Fasquelle's Method, p. 433-2, for improper examples. 

Ex.: 

Ce sont les vices qui dSgradent Phom- It is vices which debase man ; it w them 
me; ce sont eux qui le rendent which make him unhappy. 

malheureux, 

L'honneur parle, il suffit: ce sont la Honor speaks, that is enough: my oracles 
mes oracles, are there. 

Therefore, in French or English, we must say, with Ure in the 
singular: 

Ex.: 

C'est le travail et Implication, It is work and application. 

C'est nous qui It is we who 

C'est vous qui It is you icho 

Because none of the words travail, application, nous, vous, repre- 
sents a third person plural. Hence such expressions as the follow- 
ing, equally forbidden by grammar and euphony, should not be used: 

Quels sont les plus gros animaux de la terre ou des mers? Ce sont l'elephant 
et la baleine. 

See Pujol and Van Norman's Grammar, p. 43, Lesson for read- 
ing and translation. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 307 

# 
In the foregoing example, the two substantives Elephant, baleine, 

being two third persons singular, require the verb in the same 

number.* 

696. (6.) Preceded by a collective (276), verbs having for com- 
plement the preposition de and a substantive, agree with that one of 
the two words (collective or substantive) which claims most attention ; 
viz.: that of the two chiefly subject to the action expressed by the 
verb. 

We here present several examples in confirmation of this rule : 

La moitie des passagers n'avait pas la One half of the passengers had not 
force de s'inquieter du danger, strength enough to think of danger. 

Agreement of the verb with the collective noun moitie\ half; the 
action expressed by the verb avoir falling on that collective, not 
upon the substantive passagers following it. 

In this example, it is not the whole party of passengers which 
• had not strength to think of danger, but only one half of them. 

Un grand nombre d'oiseaux faisaient Those groves resounded with the sweet 
resonner ces bocages de leurs doux singing of innumerable birds. 

chants, 

Agreement of the verb faire with the substantive olseaux; the 
action expressed by that verb being 'attributed to that common sub- 
stantive, not to the collective grand nombre. 

It is not their number, but the birds themselves which cause the 
groves to resound with singing. 

La quantite de fourmis itait si grande There was such a quantity of ants that 
que la recolte fut detruite, the crops were destroyed. 

Agreement of the verb Ure with the general collective quantite" ; 

* For a violation of the same rule, see A. Vaillant's edition, 1863, of Noel 
and Chapsal's Grammar, pp. 9, 23, 24, etc. 

With etre in the plural, we cannot say correctly : 

{le substantif, Tarticle, l'adjectif, le pronom, etc. 
chaque, tout, tel, etc. 
le mien, le tien, le sien, etc. 

. To be correct, we must change the constructions, and say : " Ces mots sont le 
substantif, Particle," etc., or, according to Remark 5, No. 453, of that Gram- 
mar, with etre in the singular, say : C'est le substantif, Tarticle, l'adjectif, le 
pronom, etc. 

Each of the words enumerated being third persons singular, the use of the 
expression ce sont is precluded. 



308 GRAMMAR. 

the state expressed by that vero suiting that collective, not the sub- 
stantive fourmis. The quantity was great, not the ants. 

Une nu£e de barbares disolerent le The country was overrun by a crowd 
pays, of barbarians (86). 

Agreement of the verb de'soler with the substantive barbares ; the 
action expressed by that verb being more in accordance with that 
common substantive than with the partitive collective noun nuie. 

Barbarians were overrunning the country, not the figurative word 
nuie. 
. Lastly, with the verb in the singular, we should say : 

Une foule d'enfants encombrait la A crowd of children was filling the 
rue, street, 

the action of filling or crowding expressed by the verb encombrer 
being more consistent with foule, crowd, than with children. 
With the verb in the plural : 

Une foule d'enfants couraient dans la A crowd of children were running in 
rue, the street, 

the action of running suiting the substantive, children, better than 
the partitive collective crowd. 
With the verb in the singular: 

Un deluge de pleurs inondait son A flood of tears bathed his or her 
visage, face (367). 

The action expressed by inonder suits deluge, flood, better than 
it does the substantive pleurs. 

Again, with the verb in the plural: 

Une quantite* de pleurs couvraient son A quantity of tears covered her face. 
visage, 

Because the action expressed by couvrir befits pleurs more than 
quantite". 

According to the foregoing examples, and Rule 698, we must not 
say: 

Une poignee d'hommes E'emparal ( Une -poignee d'hommea s'emparerent 

de la ville sans coup ferir, I - J de la ville sans coup ferir (195). 

Une foule d'enfants s'amuse dans j 1 Une foule d'enfants s'amusent dans 

la rue,* J [la rue. 

In these examples the action of the verbs s'emparer, s'amuser, de- 
volves on the substantives hommes, en/ants, not on the partitive 
collectives une poigne'e, une foule. 

* Pujol and Van Norman, p. 133, Number 9-12 of the exercise. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 309 

The mind being principally directed to the common substantives 
performing the action expressed, the verb must agree with them. 

69 K, If the foregoing be well understood, it will be very easy to 
understand, when two verbs meet in a sentence, that one of them may 
be connected with the collective, while the other relates to the sub- 
stantive complement of that collective (276). 

Ex.: 

La totalite des marchandises qui nous Tlie entire amount of goods sent us ha* 

ont ete expedites est arrivee a bon arrived safely in port, 

port, 

La moitie des troupes qui firent la Half of the troops engaged in the war 

guerre perit de misere, perished with misery. 

La plus grande partie du bois qui a The greatest part of the wood cut 

€te coupe n'a pas ete brulee, down has not been burnt. 

Le tiers des livres qui parurent n'a pas A third of the books issued was not (or 

ete rendu, were not) sold. 

In the last example, the verb avoir agrees with the general 
collective le tiers; paraltre agrees with the common substantive 
livres. 

69S. "When the action or state expressed by verbs may be equally 

attributed to the collective or to the common substantive following 
that collective: if general (278, 279), practice requires verbs to agree 
with that sort of collectives ; if collective partitive, verbs agree with 
common substantives. 

Ex.: 

La totalite des hommes redoute la The greater part of mankind dread 

mort, death. 

Une foule de soldats s'apercurent que 3f any soldiers remarked that those who 

ceux qui avaient ete tues etaient had been killed were Roman 

tous Romains, citizens. 

La multiplicite des chefs rait parmi les The multiplicity of commanders 

Pheniciens une confusion qui acce- among the Phenicians hastened 

lera leur perte, their ruin. 

Une troupe de nymphes couronnees de A troup of nymphs crowned with 

fleurs nayeaient en foule derriere flowers swam in a crowd behind 

son char, the car. 

Remark. — In such cases, the agreement or difference between the 
two syntaxes requires the utmost attention on the part of students. 

699, The cause for agreement will be easily understood. 
Expressing whole numbers, general collectives express the same 
ideas with substantives following them : 

La totalite" des hommes, l'huinanitS, The generality of men, mankind. 



310 GRAMMAR. 

On the contrary, partitive collectives (278) represent indeterminate 
ideas, an indefinite part of a whole. 
Une foule de soldats, A number of soldiers. 

In the first example, mankind expresses an absorbing idea of 
generality, a genus (308). 

In the second, the mind dwells principally on the substantive 
soldiers* 

TOO. When collectives are expressed by la plupart, or adverbs of 
quantity, such as beaucoup, peu, assez, infiniment, etc., the agree- 
ment is always with substantives following la plupart or those 
adverbs. 

Ex.: 

La plupart du monde pretend, The generality of people pretend. 

La plupart de ses amis V 'abandonnerent, Many of his friends deserted him. 

Beaucoup d'hommes sont imprudents, 3Iany men are imprudent. 

Peu de gens connaissent le prix du Few know the value of time. 

temps, 

Assez de pays ont ite ravages par la Too many countries have been ravaged 

guerre, by war. 

Seigneur, tant de bontes ont lieu de me So much kindness, my lord, confounds 

confondre, me. 

Jamais tant de beauti fut-e\\e couron- Was ever a crown bestowed on so much 



nee, beauty 



701* Substantives complement of the collective adverbs beaucoup, 
la plupart, peu, etc., are often understood. In such cases, verbs agree 
with those substantives just as if they were expressed (854). 

Ex.: 
La plupart sont sujets a des infirmites, The greater part are liable to infirmi- 
c. d d. la plupart des hommes sont ties, viz., the greater part of men 

sujets a des infirmites, are liable to infirmities. 

Beaucoup aiment le jeu, peu travaillent Many like play, few work with ardor, 
avec ardeur, c. a d. beaucoup d'en- viz., many children like play, few 

fants, aiment le jeu, peu d'enfants children work with ardor. 

travaillent avec ardeur (301), 

Here the two syntaxes agree, with .the exception that monde, 
peuple, in French require verbs in the singular, while people, in 
English, calls for the plural number (1185). Ennemi or ennemis 
may be used in French. 

Ex.: 

L'ennemi est la, ou Les ennemis sont la. 

702. Remark. — Qualifying adjectives preceded by collective nouns 
are governed by the same rules as verbs: they agree with substan- 

* For confusion in definitions, see Pujol and Van Norman, p. 182-220, 221. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



311 



tives preceded by partitive collective w ords, or with collective nouns 
when those are general. 
Ex.: 



La totalite des enfants, incapable de 
prevoyance, ne voit que le present, 



Incapable of forethought, children see 
nothing beyond the present. 



Le peu is susceptible of two meanings in French (798) : it may 
signify a small quantity, or total want. Through syllepsis in the first 
case, verbs agree with the substantive following that general collect- 
ive. In the second, when complete want is expressed, it agrees 
with le peu. 

Ex.: 
La honte les abandonne pour cultiver Shame forsakes them (men) to wait 
le peu de vertus qui restent encore upon the few virtues still remain- 

a l'humanite, ing to mankind. 

Le peu de vertu qu'il possedait causa His want of virtue earned his ruin. 
sa ruine, 

In tne first example* the verb rester agrees with the substantive 
vertus ; some virtues being still left to mankind. In the last example, 
complete want being expressed, the verb causer agrees with the words 
le peu. 

^03. Since relative pronouns adopt the gender, number, and per- 
son of their antecedent, it follows that verbs having for subject the 
relative pronoun qui, who (655), agree in number and person with 
that pronoun, as they would with its antecedent (385). 

Ex.: 



L'homme et la femme qui travaillent, 
Cette reserve, cette retenue qui nous 

charme, 
Cette faiblesse, cette indifference qui 

Stonne, 
C'est toi ou moi qui repondrons, 
C'est votre interet, votre honneur, Dieu, 

qui exige ce sacrifice, 



C'est votre temps, votre fortune, votre 

vie, tout qui est du a la patrie, 
C'est Tun et l'autre qui meritent des 

eloges, 
Ce n'est ni l'un ni 1' autre qui sont cou- 

pables, 
Ce n'est ni la fortune nile rang qui font 

le bonheur, 
Ce n'est ni Fun ni 1' autre qui est mon 

pere, 
Cette multitude de vices qui degrade 

l'espece humaine, 
Une foule de soldats qui combattent 

vaillamment, 

27* 



The man and woman who are working. 
That prudence, that reserve, which 

charms us. 
That wonderful iceakness or indiffer* 

ence which, etc. 
Thou or I will answer. 
It is your interest, your honor, God, 

who requires from you that sacri- 
fice. 
Your time, your fortune, your life, all 

is due to your country. 
Both deserve praise. 



Neither one nor the other is guilty. 

Neither rank nor fortune causes happi- 
ness. 
Neither of them is my father. 

That multiplicity of vices which de- 
grades mankind. 
A crowd of soldiers fighting gallantly. 



S12 GRAMMAR, 

In the preceding s e written as if the con- 

ran thus : 

L'homme et la fenime travaillent ; cette r&erve, cette retenue nous charm e, 
etc., 

express it, where the relative pronoun 
qui is dropped. 

Remark. — TVith pronouns havm_- 
ment of verbs tak . although the relative qui, who, is under- 

stood. 

Ex.: 

Si elle on Tons arex tort (485), Iftke or you be wrong. 

Si rons ou moi tombons dan . je Should you or I fall into ike tnare. 

(431), 

Standing for: 

Dc on si e'est vons qni ave* tort; si c'est yous on si e'est m; i 

QUESTIONS. 

688. Touchant Faecord dn verbe, quelle remarqne faut-il faire 
quand deux sujets sont reunis par la conjonction commef 688 bis. 
Quelle est la regie que suit Fadjectif en de pareilsx?as? 689. Quelle 
est la seconde remarque? 690. Quelle en est la tzoisi 691. 

Quelle est Fexception remarque? 692. Quelle est la q 

trienie remarque ? 693. i :rs innnitifs n'emploie-t-on jamais 

etrt an singulier? 694. Dans quel autre eas emploie-t-on ce verbe au 
holier quoique precede de plusieurs innniv. o. Quelle est 

inquieme remarque sur Faecord du verbe ? 696. Quelle en 
la sixieme ? 697. Qu'arrive-t-il dans une phrase ou se trouvent un 
colleetif et un substantif poor sujet, et dans laquelle se rencontrent 

un deux verbes? 698. Quelle est la regie d'accord entre 
ver noms collectifs ? 699. Expliquez-nous la raison de 

accord? " Avee qnoi s'accorde le verbe quand le coll- 
exprim£ par la plupari ou par un adverbe de quan ^uel 

est Faecord dn verbe quand le su ui suit le colleetif 

tronre sons enter jp " 2. sea cas qu'y a-t-il a faire remar- 

qner snr Faecord des adjectifs qualinca:- 
dire sur Faecord du verbe avec le pronom relatif qi. 

MPLEMEXTS OF VERBS (67 

tO 4. 7 expret :ne connection with their subjects, verbs 



SYNTA^P OF THE VERB. 313 

cannot have two direct complements ; therefore, this verse by Racine 
has been objected to by grammarians and critics: 

" Ne vous informez pas ce que je deviendrai," 

in which the pronouns vous, ce, stand for direct objects (69). Gram- 
matical accuracy requires : 

Ne vous informez pas de ce que je de- Do not inquire what will become of me. 
viendrai, 

Thus corrected, informer has vous for direct complement, de ce for 
indirect. 

705. In accordance with the above principle, verbs cannot have 
two indirect complements expressing but one connection with their 
subject. Do not say: 

C'est d vous d qui je parle, c'est de vous dont il s'agit, c'est a la ville ou je 
vais. 

To show at once the inaccuracy of such expressions, drop c'est, 
and say : 

Je parle d vous d qui, il s'agit de vous dont, je vais d la ville d laquelle (oii 
here answers to which). 

Using a simple verb, it is evident that there cannot be more 
than a single connection to be expressed. A vous, de nous, d la ville, 
expressing it, the indirect complements d qui, dont, oil, being without 
functions, should be dropped. 

Instead of enunciating such superfluous connections, we should 
connect the two propositions by the conjunction que. Therefore say : 

Ex. : 

C'est a vous que je parle, It is to you lam speaking. 

C'est de vous qu'il s'agit, The question is of you, or of you is the 

question. 
C'est a la ville que je vais, It is to town I am going. 

Not always expressed in English sentences, the conjunction que 
is invariably used in French before incidental propositions (478). 

706. Verbs should not have inappropriate complements (68). 
Nuire, parler, pardonner, etc., To injure, to speak, to forgive, etc., 

require indirect complements (70). We should say with those 

neuter verbs (87), 

Ex.: 

Nuire d quelqu'un, To injure some one. 

Parler d quelqu'un, To speak to some one. 

Pardonner d quelqu'un, To forgive some one. 



314 GRAMMAR. 

Therefore, when using se, to him, to Tier, or leur, to them, as 

indirect objects (74), say: 

Ex.: 

lis se sont nui les uns aux autres, They have injured each other, 

II se sont parle* Tun d l'autre, They spoke to each other. 

Tout coupables qu'ils sont, je leur ai Guilty as they are, I have forgiven 
pardonne, them. 

instead of: 

Us se sont nui les uns les autres, il se sont parlgl'un 1' autre, je les ai pardonnes. 

Therefore, with two different complements, we should say, in 

accordance with the above rule : 

Ex.: 

L'amitie qui les unit Pun d F autre, qui The friendship which binds (or unites) 
les lie Tun d Tautre, them to each other, 

instead of: 

Qui les unit Vun V autre, qui les lie fun V autre, 

where unir, Iter, have no indirect complement. 

Kemark. — Pardonner, to forgive, requires indirect objects when 
the action which it expresses relates to a person. 

Ex.: 
Je pardonne a mon fils, I forgive my son. 

When the action relates to things, the verb has them for direct 

objects. 

Ex.: 

Je pardonne la faute qu'il a commise, I forgive the fault which he has com- 
mitted. 

Unlike pardonner, excuser, to excuse, has persons for direct objects, 
things for indirect. 

Ex.: 
J'excuse cet homme de sa faute, I excuse that man of his wrong, 

TOT. When two verbs require different complements, viz., the one 
a direct, the other an indirect object, each must be appropriately 
supplied. 

Ex.: 
H attaqua la ville et 8* en empara, He attacked the town and took it. 

II attaqua et s'empara de la ville, answering to : he attacked and 
took the town, would be incorrect in French. De la ville, indirect 
object of s'empara, cannot suit attaqua, requiring a direct comple- 
ment. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 315 

For complements of reflective or pronominal verbs, see No. 1147 ter 
and following. 

708. Whenever two indirect complements require different prepo- 
sitions, each must be provided according to the meaning (414). Say : 

Ex.: 

Un grand nombre de vaisseaux entrent A great number of men-of-war daily 
dans ce port et en sortent tous les enter and go out of this harbor, 

jours, 

Instead of: entrent et sortent de ce port ; because we must say 
in French, entrer dans, sortir de. In both languages, connections 
between words are often expressed by means of different prepositions 
(1193). 

Ex.: 
Je suis charm e de cela, I am pleased with that. 

709. Where verbs have two complements (68), one direct, the 
other indirect (69, 70), the shortest should always be placed first. 

Ex. : 

II faut opposer un maintien sto'ique aux We must oppose a stoical demeanor to 

proposetaux injures des niechants, the injuries and insults of the 

wicked. 

Les hypocrites parent des dehors de la Hypocrites disguise with a semblance 

vertu les vices les plus honteux et of virtue the most reprehensible 

les plus decries, vices. 

710. Should these complements be of equal length, the direct 

complement must be placed first. 

Les Francais vainquirent les Espagnols The French vanquished the Spaniards 
a Villaviciosa, at Villaviciosa. 

KU. In placing indirect complements, care must be taken not 
to leave room for equivocation (863). We must not say : 

Croyez-vous pouvoir ramener ces esprits egares par la douceur ? 

Les maitres qui grondent ceux qui les servent avec emportement sont les plus 

mal servis, 
N'avez-vous pas Thistoire de Louis Quatorze dans votre bibliotheque ? 

instead of: 

Les maitres qui grondent avec empor- Masters who violently scold their ser- 
tement ceux qui les servent sont vants are worst served. 

les plus mal servis, etc., 

As is seen in the following passages, this rule is sometimes inad- 
vertently violated by good writers : 

"I, therefore, approached my chair by sly degrees to the fire, and, grasping the 
poker as if it wanted mending, seemingly by accident overturned/' etc. (Vicar 
of Wakefield, chap, vi.) 



816 GRAMMAR. 

t{ I encouraged my wife, who, pale and trembling, clasped our little ones in her 
arms, that clung to her bosom in silence, dreading to look at the strangers" 
etc. (Vicar of Wakefield, chap, xiv.) 

There is surely room for equivocation in the construction of the 
preceding sentences. 

In the first it would seem as though the poker, not the jtfre, wanted 
mending ; in the second it might be said that the arms, not the 
children, are described as clinging silently to the mother's bosom. 

Such inaccuracies often tend to render ludicrous what otherwise 
would be really pathetic and full of tender feeling. 

712. When complements of verbs contain several parts connected 
by one of the conjunctions et, ni, ou, those parts must be enunciated 
by words of the same kind; viz., those conjunctions (836) must 
always connect substantives with substantives, verbs with verbs, 
prepositions with prepositions, etc. Hence the incorrectness of the 
following expressions : 

II aime lejeu et a etudier, 

lis se plaisent au spectacle ou a promener f 

II n'est pas necessaire d'apprendre d tirer de Tare, ni le maniement du javelot, 

Je crois vos raisons excellentes et que vous le convaincrez, 

where substantives are connected with verbs, and verbs with sub- 
stantives. 

Connecting substantives with substantives, or verbs with verbs, 
we should say : 

Ex.: 

II aime le jeu et Tetude, He likes play and study. 

lis se plaisent au spectacle ou a la They delight in play-houses and pro- 

promenade, menades. 

II n'est pas necessaire d'apprendre a It is needless to learn how to shoot 

tirer de Tare, ni a manier le jave- with the bow, or to handle the 

lot, javelin. 

Je crois que vos raisons sont excel- Your reasons I think excellent, and 

lentes, et que vous le convaincrez. believe you will convince him. 

713. Passive verbs form their complements by means of the pre- 
position de or par (82)* 

To express sentiments, passions,, or emotions of the soul, they 
take de. 

Representing actions, in which both the mind and body take part, 
they use par. 

* Other prepositions might be used with passive verbs : 
Ex.: 

Irest aime pour son argent, He is loved for his money. 

Elle est cherie avec ardeur, She is cherished with ardor. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 317 

Ex.: 

L'honnete-homme est estime de tout The honest man is esteemed by every- 

le monde, body. 

Une grande partie de la terre a ete A great portion of the world was con- 

conquise par les Romains, quered by the Romans. 

?14. Kemark. — Custom allows the use of the preposition par, to 
avoid the repetition of the preposition de. 

Ex.: 

Votre conduite a Ste" approur^e cPune Your behavior has been unanimously 
commune voix par toutes les per- approved by wise and learned 

sonnes sages et eclairees, people. 

Before indirect complements, prepositions are not generally re- 
peated in English (833). 

QUESTIONS. 

704. Un verbe peut-il avoir deux complements directs? 705. Quelle 
conclusion peut-on deduire de ce principe general? 706. Un com- 
plement quel qu'il soit peut-il s'eniployer avec toute sorte de verbes? 
" ' . Qu'arrive-t-il, dans une phrase, quand deux verbes reclament 
diverses sortes de complements? 708. Que fait-on, quand dans une 
phrase, deux complements indirects reclament deux prepositions 
differentes? 709. Quelles sont les places respectives des comple- 
ments? 710. Qu'arrive-t-il quand les complements sont de longueur 
egale? 711. A quoi faut-il prendre garde en placant les comple- 
ments indirects? 712. Que faut-il faire quand les complements des 
verbes sont composes de plusieurs mots reunis par les conjunctions et, 
nit 713. Quelles sont les prepositions employees avec les com- 
plements des verbes passifs? 714. Quelle est la remarque a faire 
sur Temploi des prepositions de, par, employees avec ces verbes? 

Use of the Auxiliaries (160). 
715. Avoir, to have, denotes action in the subject (161). 

Ex.: 

H a fait, il a aime, il a parlS, He has dane, he has loved, he spoke, 

Etre, to be, expresses existence in the same. Followed by a past 
participle it indicates the mode of that existence (466). 

Ex.: 

H est, il est aime* (27, 28), He is, he is loved. 



318 GRAMMAR. 

Whence we may deduce the following: 

716. (1.) Neuter verbs expressing action or situation are generally 
Conjugated with the auxiliary avoir (87). 

Ex.: 

J'ai succed6, il a re"gn6, nous avons / have succeeded, he has reigned, we 

dorrni, •» have slept. 

Yous aviez marchS, il a paru, ils ont You had walked, he has appeared, they 

ri, have laughed. 

Ils ont peri, vous avez couru, etc., They have perished, you have run, etc 

The two languages agree in this particular (259). 

717. The following verbs, however, are to be excepted: 

Aller, arriver, choir, decider, mourir, To go, to arrive, to fall, to die, to be 

naitre, tomber, venir, with its born, to fall, to come, to become, to 

coynpounds, devenir, revenir, par- return, to succeed, etc. 
venir, etc., 

Though their action requires avoir, these verbs take the auxiliary 
tire, — custom having sanctioned the substitution. 

Ex.: 

Je suis alle, nous sommes tombes, I am gone, we are fallen, 

718. (2.) A certain number of neuter verbs, viz., 

Accourir, disparaitre, croitre, cesser, To run to, to disappear, to grow, to 

monter, descendre, entrer, sortir, cease, to ascend, to descend, to enter, 

passer, partir, grandir, dechoir, to go out, to pass, to set out, to grow, 

Gchoir, enipirer, vieillir, etc., to sink in rank, to become due, etc., 

sometimes take avoir, sometimes ttre. 

When action is to be expressed, they take avoir. When state or 
situation is the predominant idea, they take itre. 

The context must indicate the appropriate auxiliary for such 
verbs. 

To express action, with avoir we will say : 
Ex.: 

Elle a disparu subiteinent, She disappeared suddenly. 

La fievre a cesse* hier, The fever disappeared yesterday. 

La riviere a monte rapidement (1120), The river rose rapidly. 

Le barometre a descendu de plusieurs The barometer sunk several degrees. 

degres, 

II a passe en Amerique en tel temps, He went to America at such a time. 

Le trait a parti avec imp£tuosite, The dart flew with impetuosity. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 319 

Remark.-=-Iii those cases, the auxiliary to have is not expressed 

in English. 

To express state or situation, using ttre we will say: 

Ex.: 

Elle est disparue depuis quinze jours, She has absconded within a fortnight. 

La fievre est cess6e depuis quelque The fever has gone some time since. 

temps, 

II est monte, il est descendu depuis It has gone up and down within an hour. 

une heure, 

Les chaleurs sont passees, Heat is over. 

Les troupes sont parties pour six mois, The troops have gone for six months. 

719. Remark. — Sometimes several of those verbs are used act- 
ively or transitively, — viz. : with a direct complement (91). In accord- 
ance with the rules which govern active verbs, in such cases they 
take avoir for auxiliary. 

Ex.: 

On les a descendus, They have been brought down. 

II a monte Pescalier, He has gone up stairs. 

On Ya sorti d'une affaire d6sagr6able, They have got him out of a disagreeable 

affair. 
JW passe* la nuit sans dormir, / spent the night without sleep. 

KftO* Some neuter verbs change auxiliaries in changing accepta- 
tion. 

Convenir takes to have, avoir, when meaning to suit; to be, etre, 
when used in the sense of to agree (715, 716). 

Ex.: 

Cette maison m'a convenu (781), et je That house suited me, and I agreed on 
suis convenu du prix (82, 251), its value (or price). 

721. Signifying to reside, to live, to dwell, demeurer takes avoir for 

auxiliary ; also when standing for to consume or spend time. 

Ex.: 

II a demeure* a Madrid, He has resided in Madrid. 

Elle a demeure* une heure a le faire, She has spent an hour at it. 
Nous avons demeure' dans cette rue, We have been living in that street. 

Expressing, on the contrary, situation or state, demeurer takes the 

auxiliary etre, to be. 

Ex. : 

II est demeure en chemin, We left him on the road. 

Ou en C8t-i\ demeure de son travail? How far has he advanced in his work? 
II est demeure sur le coup, He sunk under the blow. 

28 



320 GRAMMAR. 

~"2'2» In French, it is said, idiomatically: 
Cetto faute m'est Schappee (776), / have made that mistake, 

or, Cette faute ni'a 6chappe* (777), / did not notice that mistake. 

723. Expirer, to expire, is said either of persons or things. 
Used for persons, it means to die, and takes avoir for auxiliary. 
Ex.: 

Cet homme a expire* dans mes bras, That man expired in my arms. 

Said of things, it corresponds with arrived at the term of duration, 
taking avoir to express action. 

Ex.: 

Son bail a expire* a. la Saint- Jean, His (or her) lease expired on Saint John's 

day. 

To express state, expirer takes etre (1223). 

Ex. : 

Les delais sont expires, The time is up. 

724. Connected with persons in common with other verbs com- 
bined with avoir (716), expirer requires that auxiliary to be ex- 
pressed (1230). 

. . . a ces mots le heros expire 

N'a laisse* dans mes bras qu'un corps defigure. 

TJn hiros expire" is no more a French expression than would be un 
hiros triomphi, un homme dormi. 
Accurate expression requires 

Ce heros ayant expir6, That hero having expired. 

725. When meaning to live, to stay in a place, rester takes to 
have. 

Ex.: 

II a reste deux jours a Lyon, He stayed two days at Lyons. 

With every other acceptation it takes to be, etre. 

Ex.: 

II €tait reste a Bordeaux, pendant He was in Bordeaux, while he was 
qu'on le croyait a. Paris, thought to be in Paris. 

QUESTIONS. 

715. Qu'exprime l'auxiliare avoir quand il sert a conjuguer un 
autre verbe; dans la meme circonstance qu'exprime l'auxiliaire^re? 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 321 

716. Dans quel cas conjugue-t-on les verbes neutres avec Pauxiliaire 
avoir? 717. Quels sont ces verbes qui remplacent avoir par Fauxi- 
liaire Gtre? 718. Faites-nous connaitre les verbes neutres qui pren- 
nent tantot avoir et tantot etre? 719. N'y a-t-il pas quelques verbes 
neutres qui s'emploient (Tune maniere active; et quel est le cas ou 
ces verbes sont ainsi employes? 720. Quels sont les verbes qui 
changent d'auxiliaire en changeant de signification? 721. Dans 
quel cas le verbe demeurer prend-il avoir? 722. Quelles sont les 
significations d'&happer selon que ce verbe est conjugue avec Pauxi- 
liaire avoir ou l'auxiliaire Ure? 723. Quelles sont celles du verbe 
expirer? 724. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur la suppression de 
Tauxiliaire dans les temps compos6s? 725. Quelles sont les signifi- 
cations de r ester quand on change d'auxiliaire? 

Use of Tenses of the Indicative and Conditional Modes 
(37, 39). 

726. To render a narration more spirited, the present is often 
used for the past (52, 53); or sometimes for the future, when speak- 
ing of actions soon to take place (1025 bis). 

Ex.: 

J'ai vu, seigneur, j'ai vu votre Hal- My lord, I have seen your unfortunate 

heureux fils, son, dragged by the horses fed by 

Traine" paries chevaux que sa main his own hands; he tries to speak 

a nourris ; (to them), and his voice frightens 

II veut les rappeler, et sa voix les effraie, them. 

Attendez, je viens dans un instant, Wait a little, I will come in a moment. 

72T. In the first case, every verb in the sentence expressing the 
same idea must be used in the present tense. 

Do not say: 

II provoque son adversaire, s'elance sur lui, et le terrassa. 
Tandis que le cardinal Mazarin gagnait des batailles contre les ennemis de 
l'etat, les siens combattent contre lui. 

Grammar requires the use of the same tense with the two verbs. 

II provoque son adversaire, s'elance He provokes his adversary, springs at 

sur lui, et le terra sse, him, and throws him down. 

Tandis que le cardinal Mazarin gagne While Cardinal Mazarin is victorious 

des batailles contre les ennemis over the enemies of the state, his 

de F6tat, les siens combattent con- own fight against him. 
tre lui, 

There is in this respect perfect harmony in the two syntaxes. 



322 GRAMMAR. 

7£S« Expressing a time past, the imperfect or pluperfect must not 

be used (54, 58): 

(1.) For actions taking place at the moment the words are uttered. 

Therefore, should the person spoken of be still in Paris, do not say : 
J'ai appris que vous etiez a Paris. 

In such cases, we must use the second verb in the present tense: 

Ex.: 

J'ai appris que vous tte% a Paris, I xoas told that you are in Paris, 

(2.) For permanent things, such as maxims, self-evident truths, etc. 
Hence we cannot say : 

Je vous ai dit que la sagesse Vemportait sur les richesses. 

Je vous ai demontre" que la terre itait ronde. 

Vous m'avez prouve* que deux et deux faisaient quatre. 

To express actual existence, the thing spoken being always true or 
extant requires the use of the present, 

Ex.: 

Je vous ai dit que la sagesse Vemporte I told you that wisdom is preferable to 

sur les richesses, riches. 

Je vous ai demontre" que la terre est I have demonstrated to you that the 

ronde, etc. } earth is round. 

So far from expressing what we would say, the use of the imper- 
fect in the above expressions would i^icate that wisdom once was 
superior to riches but is no more so ; that our earth once was round, 
but has since changed shape. Our rule is a part of general gram- 
mar. 

729. The past indefinite expresses a time past or spent (56), 

Ex.: 
J'ai recu une lettre l'annee derniere, I have received a letter last year, last 
le mois passe, la semaine derniere, month, last week, yesterday, 

hier, 

or a period not altogether elapsed. 

Ex.: 

J'ai recu une lettre cette annee, ce / have received a letter this year, this 
mois, cette semaine, aujourd'hui, month, this week, to-day. 

730. On the contrary, the past definite is used to express periods 
of time completely past or spent, — separated by an interval of at 
least one night from the time of uttering the words (55). 

Therefore we cannot say: Je requs une lettre cette ann6e, ce mois, 
cette semaine, aujourd'hui ; because we are still within the periods 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 323 

mentioned ; the year, month, week, or day not being entirely elapsed 
or spent. 

731. On account of the relation between the past definite and past 
indefinite, we may with equal correctness use either of those tenses, 
in speaking of periods completely past: 

Ex.: 

Je vous ecrivis, ou je vous ai Scrit, I wrote, or I have been writing to you, 

hier, yesterday. 

Nous le rencontrames,.ow nous l'avons We met him, or have been meeting him, 

rencontre, Tann£e passSe, the past year. 

732. Remark. — When a period of time completely elapsed is to / 
be expressed more than once in the same sentence, the past definite 
and indefinite must not be used promiscuously. 

Ex.: 

Je recus hier unelettre a laquelle j^cn repondu tout-de-suite. 

To be correct, we must say, using but one tense : 

Ex.: 

Je recus hier une lettre a laquelle je Yesterday I received a letter which I 

repondis tout-de-suite, answered immediately, 

ou, J'ai recu hier une lettre a laquelle or, / have received yesterday a letter 

j'ai repondu tout-de-suite, which I have answered immediately. 

733. Expressing a past time anterior to elapsed periods, the plu- 
perfect must not be used instead of the past indefinite, which ex- 
presses simply a time past (56, 58). 

Consequently, do not say: J'ai appris que vous aviez voyage"; as it 
is only a time past, without any idea of anteriority being connected 
with the first verb. Say: 

Ex.: 

J'ai appris que vous avez voyage", / have been told that you had travelled, 

734. The conditional must not be used for the future (59, 39). 
Therefore do not say: 

On m'a assure" que vous voyageriez incessamment, 
it being required to express merely a time to come, without the idea 
of condition. Say: 

Ex.: 

On m'a assure" que vous voyagerez, I have been told that you will travel. 

135. When verbs in the principal proposition are in past tenses 
(53, 476), verbs in the incidental proposition (477), instead of being 

28* 



J'aurais parie qii'il pleuvrait, 1 . . , - J qu'il aurait plu. 

Je nr'attendais qu'il m'Scrirait, | 1 qu'il m'aurait §crit. 

J'aurais parie que vous reussiriez, J [ que vous auriez reussi. 



3-4 GRAMMAR. 

iu the past must be in the present conditional when, with regard to 
the verb in the principal proposition, a past is to be expressed. 
Therefore say: 

Ex.: 
Je croyais que vous viendriez, ( que vous seriez venu. 

qu'il i 
.'.. > insieaa oi 

trait, 

hissiriez, J 
See 453, 476, 477, 485. 

The present conditional may be used for the present indicative, 
in sentences having an interrogative meaning. 

Ex.: 
Ign orer iez-YOUS cela ? instead of ignorez- Are you ignorant of that * 
vous cela ? 

The expression Ignoreiiez-vous is the more energetic, and very 
strongly marks doubt or surprise in the mind of the querist. 

To express a resolution taken, the future is used in connection with 
the conjunction st; the conditional requires the same conjunction 
to express a single icish depending on conditions. 

Ex.: 

Je ferai batir une maison si j'ai de I will have a house built if I get money, 

T argent, 
Nous ferions batir une maison si nous We would have a house built had we 

en avions les nioyens, s'il nous the means, if we could. 

etait possible de le faire, 

By inversion we might say : 

" Si j'ai de 1' argent je ferai batir une maison" (861). 

Use of the Subjunctive Mode. 

736. The subjunctive is the mode of doubt, indecision, necessity, 
command, or wish (42, 43). 
It is employed : 

736 bis. (1.) After verbs expressing ideas of will, command, wish, 
uncertainty, fear, or any mental feeling producing doubt as to the 
result of actions expressed by the second verb. Preceding verbs in 
the subjunctive mode, conjunctions always announce incidental pro- 
positions (485). 

Principal Incidental 

propositions (476), propositions (477) , 

II veut ~\ que nous fassions notre') He wants us to do our ") 

II exige > que vous fassiez votre > devoir, He requires you to do your > duty, 
II desire J qu'il* fassent leur J He wishes them to do their J 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



325 



In the foregoing examples, verbs in the principal propositions, in 
French or English, are in the present indicative. Those in the 
incidental proposition in the subjunctive, in French, are in the pre- 
sent infinitive in English. 



737. After .verbs followed by negations or expressing interro- 
gations (1178 bis). 



Principal. 
Je ne crois pas 
Croyez-vous 
2s"e croyez-vous pas 



Incidental. 
i que tu viennes, 
► que nous venions 
I qu'il vienne ? 



Principal. 
I do not believe you 
? Do you believe tee 
Do you not think he 



Incidental. 

will come. 
► will come ? 

will come ? 



mot 

) wii: 
Vwii: 
J wii: 



In the incidental proposition, verbs in the subjunctive in French 
are here expressed by the future of the indicative mode in English, 
or are dropped. 

Ex.: 

Ke cherchez pas quelqu'un qui soit Do not seek somebody more modest. 

plus modeste. 
Cherchez-vous une personne qui soit Do you look for somebody more skilful? 

plus habile ? 

Remark. — When verbs of the principal proposition are in the 
first person, those of the incidental may be in the second or third. 
The person of verbs in the principal proposition must not generally 
be used in the incidental ; unless when conjugated unipersonally, 
as in the following example. 



II lui semble qu'il y voit, 
On veut qu'il travaille, 



It appears to him that he sees. 
They want him to work. 



738. Exception. — When interrogations are rhetorical forms, 
which, instead of expressing doubt, are strongly affirmative, the 
subjunctive mode must not be used (1178 bis). 

Ktfi 



Madame, ignorez-vous que Thesee 
est mon pere et qu'il est votre 
epoux ? 



. Do you forget, madam, that Theseus 
is my father and that he is your 
husband ? 



73S bis. After unipersonal verbs or verbs used unipersonally 
(103,105). 9 



Principal 
proposition. 
II semble 
II convient 
II faut 
II est juste 
II est fac]ieux 



Incidental. 
Subjunctive (742). 



qu'il vienne, 



Principal. 

It appears 

It is proper 

It is necessary 

It is right 

It is disagreeable 



Incidental. 



■ that he should come 



326 GRAMMAR. 

Here the subjunctive in French answers to the conditional in Eng- 
lish. 

739. Exception. — Followed by indirect complements (74) relating 
to persons : 



11 senible, 


It appears. 


H resulte. 


It follows, 


11 v a. 


There is, 


11 est certain, 


It is sure, 


11 par, 


It seems, 


11 est vrai, 


It is true, 



and other unipersonal verbs, expressing something positive, will 
require the indicative mode, although preceded by the conjunction 

Principal. Incidental. 

B me semble 
II vous semble 
II parait 
II est Sib- 
il est hors de doute 



Indicative (741). It appears to me 
It appears to you 

qu'il a raison, It seems 
It is sure 
Tlxere is no doubt 



- that he is right. 



Unless these expressions be followed by negations, or be used in- 
terrogatively (1178 bis) 
Ex!: 

II ne me semble pas. il ne me parait It does not seem to me. it does not appear 
pas, qu'il ait raison, to me, that he is right. 

Tons semble-t-il, yous parait-il, qu'il Does it seem to you, does it appear to 
ait raison? you, that he is right? 

In the first examples, in both languages, verbs in the incidental 
propositions are in the indicative mode, because they have a positive 
meaning. 

The use of que in the expressions qu'il a, qu'il ait, shows at once 
the fallacy of the theory that that conjunction is used only with the 
subjunctive mode.* 

740. After relative pronouns or the adverb ou, ichere, *+rhen 
they are preceded by the words : 
Le senl. The only one. ] Le niieux, The best. Masculine. 

Pen. I Masculine La plu5, The most. ") 

Le plus, The most. j 'La moins. Hie least. > Feminine. 

Le^moins, The least. J La mieux, The best. J 

Ex.: 

Le chien est le seul animal dont la The dog is the only animal whose 
fidelite soit a Pepreuve. fidelity can be relied on. 

II y a peu d'hommes qui sdchent sup- Few men know how to bear adversity. 
porter l'adversite, 

* See Fasquelle's Method, p. 456-2 ; Pujol and Van Norman, p. 12^58-259. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 327 

C'est la seule place oil vous puissiez It is the only position to which you may 

aspirer, aspire. 

C'est le seul endroit oil vous puissiez It is the only place which you may 

atteindre, reach. 

Detestables flatteurs ! present le plus Detestable flatterers ! most fatal gift. 

funeste, 

Que puisse faire aux rois la vengeance That heavenly vengeance could bestow 

celeste, on kings I 

C'est le moins honnete homme qu'il y He is the man with the least honesty. 

ait, 



The words 



{Le meilieur ^ , •, - ( Le plus bon, (408) The best. ~\ 
Le pire > (a(\q\ S Le plus mauvais, The worst. > 548. 

Le moindre J ^ ' ( Le plus petit, The smallest. J 



Therefore, using the subjunctive mode we will say : 
Ex.: 

C'est le meilieur homme qu'il y ait, He is the best man in the world. 
C'est la moindre faute qu'il puisse It is the slightest fault he could have 
commettre, committed. 

T41. The indicative mode must be used instead of the subjunc- 
tive, where the verb in the incidental proposition expresses some- 
thing unquestionably positive (477). 

Ex.: 

De ces deux officiers c'est le plus jeune The youngest of those two officers is the 
que je connais, one whom I know. 

C'est le plus etourdi des eleves qui sont It is the giddiest among the pupils of 
dans ma classe qu'on a recom- , my class who has been rewarded. 
pense, 

742. After a relative pronoun or the adverb ou, when the verb 
following expresses something uncertain, answering to the infinitive 
or potential mode in English. 

Ex.: 

Je cherche quelqu'un qui me rende ce / look for somebody who will oblige me 

service, in this matter. 

Je sollicite une place que je puisse I solicit a situation that I m&y he Jit for. 

remplir, 

J'irai dans une retraite ou je sois tran- / will go to a retreat where /may be 

quille, quiet. 

In such cases doubt is expressed ; because the person I am looking 
for may be unable to oblige me, I may not be fitted for the situation 
I am seeking, I may not be quiet in the retreat where I intend to 
go : therefore the subjunctive mode is used. 

Remark. — In the indicative mode we might say : 



GRAMMAR. 



Ex.: 



Qui me rendra ce MTV Who icill oblige me, 

Que je peujc reinplir. That I c 

Ou je serai tranquille, Where I trill be quiet; 

but that would change the meaning ; the state or action of the 
verbs rendre, pouvoir, etre, being represented as positive. 

*43. After quelque . . . que. quel que. quoi que, quoique, etc. 
(604, 667 bis), preceding incidental propositions. 

Ex.: 
Quelque riche que vous soye*, Hyicsoecer rich you may be. 

Quels que ..o_:?, Whatever may be your talents. 

Quoi que vous d is Whatever you might say. 

?44. A:: notive expressions like the following, preceding 

also incidental prop m -" B : 

Afin-que. pour que. a moins que. en eas In order, for, unless, perchance, be/ore, 

que. avant que. bien que, encore although, yet, lest, for fear, pro- 

que, de erainte que, de peur que, rided, without that, till, e 
pourvu que. sans que, jusqu'a ce 
que, puisque, - 

Ex.: 

ia venu pour que nous parlions I came in order to talk of our affair. 
de notre affaire, 

H n'en fera rien a moins que vous ne He tri7Z not do it unless you speak to 

lui parliez, mm. 

Attendez i I "il rienne t Wait here till he comes. 

Remark. 

Pour que, afin que *} In order. 

A moins que > answer to : Unless. 

\iinteque, J Zest, for fear. 

The last expression is combined idiomatically with ne. 
Ex.: 
De erainte qu'il ne vienne (818), Zest he should come* 

~45. After the conjunction que, standing for one of the foregoing 
conjunctive ex s, or having the signitication of si. 

Ex.: 



Approchez que nous vous parlions, 

D ne fait pas de voyages qu*il ne 
soit malade. 

-ge et que vous 
voulussiex travailler, 



Approcliez pour que nous vous par- 

v> . II ne fait pas de voyages sans qu/il 
~ it malade. 

Si g« et si vons 

vouliex travailler. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 329 

746. The expressions 

Be facon que, de maniere que, de sorte In such a way, inasmuch, in such a 
que, si ce n'est que, sinon que, etc., manner, unless, etc. 

sometimes require the indicative mode, sometimes the subjunctive. 
They require the subjunctive when the idea is of a future con- 
tingency. 

Ex.: 

Conduisez-vous de mnniere que vous Behave so as to win the esteem of honest 
obteniez Testime des honnetes- people. 

gens, 

The indicative mode is required when a positive idea is con- 
nected with present or past time. 

Ex.: 

II s'est conduit de maniere qu'il obtient He has behaved in such a manner as to 
l'estime des honnetes-gens, inn the esteem of honest people, 

ou, qu'il a obtenu l'estime des honnetes- or, that he has won the esteem of honest 
gens, people. 

Using the indicative mode (935), say: 

Tout instruit qu'il est, onl'ignore parmi Learned as he is, he is unknown among 

les sots, the iy no rant. 

Tout malheureux qu'est cet homme, il Unfortunate as that man is, he is merry. 

est gai, 



QUESTIONS. 

726. Comment emploie-t-on le present de Tindicatif ? 727. Com- 
ment fait-on quand plusieurs verbes sont employes pour reprSsenter 
la meme idee? 728. Comment s'emploie l'imparfait du mode indicatif ? 
729. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on le passe" indefini ? 730. Dans quel 
autre cas faut-il employer le passe d6fini, qu'on appelle aussi preterit 
defini? 731. Que concluez-vous de ces deux regies? 732. Quelle 
est la remarque a faire sur Temploi de ces deux temps? 733. Com- 
ment emploie-t-on le plus-que-parfait ? 734. A quoi faut-il prendre 
garde dans Femploi du mode conditionnel ? 735. A quel temps 
mettez-vous le verbe de la proposition incidente, quand celui de la 
principale est dans un temps passe? 736. Qu'exprime le mode sub- 
jonctif ? 736 bis. Dans quel cas Temploie-t-on ? 737. Dans quel 
autre? 738. Quelle est Fexception a cet emploi? 738 bis. Em- 
ploie-t-on le mode subjonctif avec tous les verbes unipersonnels ? 
739. Quelle est V autre exception ? 740. Quels sont les cas ou il faut 
employer au subjonctif le verbe de la proposition incidente? 741. 



GRAMMAR. 

Quand ce nierne verbe s'ernploie-t-il au mode indicatif ? 74:2. Quel 
mode emploie-t-on apres un pronom r£latif ou l'adverbe oil? 743. 
Quel mode emploie-t-on ai :•: as quelque, que, quoique, 

etc. ? 744. Quel mode emploie-t-on apres I 

trfin que, pour que, a mains que. 'ans quel cas met-on le 

verbe au subjonctif apres la conjonction que? 746. Quel mode faut-il 
employer ap xpressions conjonctiYes de sorte que, de f agon 

g \-; ■ 

Remake. — The demonstration of the difference in principles be- 
sn the French and English languages shows how preposterous 
are Methods which profess to teach French with definitions appli- 
cable only to English cases. To explain to English learners the use 
of the determinate article or the several meanings in substantia 

must have recourse to French definitions : so also in developing 
the theories of verbs, which in the two languages are based on very 
different principles. 



Use of the Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode (42 

746 bis. Always dependent on other verbs, the verb in the prin- 
cipal proposition determines what tense of the subjun: o be 
usei [453, 76,477). 

Ex.: 

Je ne crois pas que yous Teniei, / do mot believe that you will come. 

Je De croyais pas que vons yinssiex, / woe mot bettering that you would come. 
Croiriei-Tous qu'ils vinssent ? Would mom believe that they may come t 

747. Remaeks. 

1st. By inversion, subjunctives sometimes precede the verb which 
governs them. This takes place when the principal propositi 
comes last | B61 . 

Quelque sages que nous soyons, nous commettons bien des fautes (420). 

To apply our rule, we must give the words their natural order, 
and say : 

y ous commettons bien des motes quel- We fall into many errora, however wise 
mm sires wmm momt BOyona, we may be. 

ke place generally where the conjunctions quel- 
que, quoique. afin que, and certain other conjun ressions, are 

used (861). 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 331 

Que ne may take the place of quoique in the sense of why, but not 
in that of though or although (667 bis). 

Que n'ailliez-vous pas plus vite ? 
answering to : 
Pourquoi n'ailliez-vous pas plus vite ? Why did you not go faster ? 

2d. Incidental propositions are sometimes elliptical, some of their 
terms being understood ; they may also be inverted, as in the follow- 
ing example (420). 

Ex.: 

Quoique triomphante de tous les ob- Wisdom makes but a slow defence at 
stacles, la sagesse n'offre d'abord first, though a sure one at last / 

qu'une faible resistance, 

answering to : 

* La sagesse n'offre d'abord qu'une faible resistance, quoiqu'e^e soit triom- 
phante de tous les obstacles." 

The subject and verb, die and soit, are understood in the incidental 
proposition. 

748. According to the time which it is desired to mark in 
regard to the first verb, after the present or future of the indicative 
mode the present or past subjunctive is to be used. 

Ex.: 

Principal Incidental, 

proposition. Subjunctive, present or future. 

Je doute ^ que vous itudiiez I doubt } whether you study now, or 

Je douterai > main tenant (110), 1 will doubt > whether you will study 

Nous doutons J demain. We doubt ) to-morrow. 

Principal Incidental, 

proposition. Subjunctive, past. 

Je douterai 1 ^ ui VOU l ^ ez * tudiS 1 w°ill doubt 1 whether f™, had A studied 
Nous doutons J hier > We doubt J yesterday, etc. 

749. Exception. — Where verbs in the subjunctive are preceded or 
followed by a conditional expression beginning with si, quand, sans, 
each having the signification of if, after the present of the indicative 
mode the imperfect is used instead of the present subjunctive, or the 
pluperfect instead of the past. 

Present subjunctives in such cases correspond with present con- 
ditionals in English ; pluperfects, with the past tense of the condi- 
tional. 

29 



332 



GRAMMAR. 



Ex.: 

Principal Incidental, 

proposition. Subjunctive, imperfect (141). 

Je ne crois pas "1 que vous etudiassiez I do not believe ~\ you xcould study 

Je ne croirai pas [ maintenant,demain, I ic ill not believe I now, to-morroic, 

Nous ne croyons j si Ton ne vous y We do not believe f unless you icere 

pas J contraignait, J forced to do so. 



Je ne pense pas 
Je ne penserai 

pas 
Xous ne pensons 

pas 



Subjunctive, pluperfect. 



que vous eussiez 
etudie bier si Ton 
ne vous y eut con- 
traint, 



/ do not think 
I ic ill not think 

We do not think 



you would have 
been working yes- 
terday unless, you 
had been con- 
strained. 



Je ne presume pas, je ne presumerai 
pas. que vous nr eussiez eerit quand 
meme vous l'auriez pu: c. a d., si 
vous l'aviez pu, 

Je ne crois pas, je ne croirai pas, qu'il 
reussit sans vous; c ; & d., si vous 
ne le protegicz pas, 

Je ne suppose pas, je ne supposerai 
pas, qu'il eut reussi sans votre pro- 
tection ; c. a d., si vous ne lui aviez 
pas accorde votre protection, 



/ do not presume, nor will presume, 
(that) you would have written to me 
had you been able ; viz. : if you had 
been able. 

I do not believe, nor will believe, he will 
succeed without you; viz. : unless^ou 
protect him. 

I do hot suppose, nor will suppose, that 
he would have succeeded without 
your protection ; viz.: if you had 
not protected him. 



In the above examples, que vous etudiassiez answers to que yous 
etudieriez, that you should study ; que vous eussiez 4tudi6, que vous 
auriez etudie, that you should have studied. 



750. Sometimes the conditional expression sans, with its comple- 
ment, conveys the idea of present time. After the present or future 
of the indicative mode the present subjunctive must be used, which 
in such cases corresponds to the future instead of the conditional 
(839). 

Ex.: 



Je ne crois pas, je ne croirai pas, qu'il 
reussisse sans vous, 

The meaning is: 

II ne reussira pas si vous ne le pro- 
t6gez pas, 



/ do not believe, nor will believe, he 
will succeed without you. 



He will not succeed if you do not help 

him. 



751. After the imperfect, pluperfect, past, or conditional, accord- 
ing to the time to be expressed in regard to the first verb, the im- 
perfect or pluperfect of the subjunctive mode is used; the imper- 
fect to express a present or future, the pluperfect a past. 



SYNTAX OP THE VERB. 



333 



Principal 
proposition. 
Je doutais 
Je doutai 
J'ai doute 
Je douterais 
J'aurais doute 
J'avais doute 



Incidental. 
Subjunctive, imperfect. 



que vous etudiassiez 
aujourd'hui, 

aeniain, 



I was doubting 

I did doubt 

I have doubted 

I would doubt 

I would have doubted 

I had doubted 



that you would 

study to-day, 

to-morrow. 



The subjunctive here answers to the conditional mode in English. 



Je doutais 
Je doutai 
J'ai doute 
Je douterais 
J'aurais doute 
J'avais doute 



Subjunctive, pluperfect. 

I was doubting 



que vous eussiez 
etudie hier, la 
semaine passee, 



I did doubt 

I have doubted 

I would doubt 

I would have doubted 

I had doubted 



that you would 

have studied yes- 

terday, next 

week. 



Remark. — Always expressed in French, to connect principal and 
incidental propositions, the conjunction que is often dropped in 
English. 

To answer to the imperfect of the indicative mode, when that tense 
is connected with one of the words aussi, de me?ne, etc., the imper- 
fect of the subjunctive is sometimes used with ne, pas (1178 bis). 

Ex. : 

Ce n'est pas que nous n'eussions quel- Nbi but that we sometimes had those 
que fois de petites tracasseries, little rubs, etc. 

etc., 

answering to: 

Nous avions aussi quelque fois de ces petites tracasseries, etc. 

The common interrogative forms est-ce que? etes-vous? may, by means 
of a peculiar intonation of the voice, be made to express astonishment. 
In such cases the conditional instead of the indicative mode is to be 
used. Say : 

Seriez-vous malade? instead of Stes- Should you be sick? 
vous malade? 



"i&H. Exceptions. — (1.) After zpast indefinite followed by one of 
the conjunctive expressions 

Ann que, pour que, de crainte que, de In order, so that, lest, for fear, though, 
peur que, quoique, bien que, etc., although, etc., 

to express a present or future, the present of the subjunctive is used 
for the imperfect, or the present infinitive (757) when that mode can 
be used. 



334 GRAMMAR. 



Ex. 



Dieu nous a donne la raison afin que God has given its reason that toe may 
nous discernions le bien d'avec le discriminate between good and evil, 

mal, 

Discernions takes the place of a present infinitive, answering to 
Dieu nous a donne" la raison pour discerner le bien d'avec le mal. 

Ex. : 

Nous lui avons Scrit pour qu'il prenne We wrote to him in order that he may 
domain un determination, come to a determination to-morrow. 

This example indicates a future. 

753. (2.) Custom allows the use of the past for the imperfect of 
the subjunctive after a past indefinite. 

Ex.: 

A-t-on jamais vu un homme qui ait Has ever a man been seen who has shown 
montre" plus do courage? (403) more courage? 

Standing for: A-t-on jamais vu un homme qui montrdt plus de 
courage? (141). 

By those who are versed in the practice of verbs or in their general 
principles, such rules will be easily acquired ; but to one ignorant of 
the first part of our Method they will be of no service. This fact 
demonstrates the utter inefficiency of systems which begin with con- 
structions before rendering the pupil familiar with principles, and 
proves the superiority of our Method. In order to attain a practical 
knowledge of French, it is indispensable that the proper use of 
tenses be learned, and that the general principles of the verbs 
be mastered. 4 



QUESTIONS. 

746 bis. Qu'est-ce qui determine Pe|nploi des temps du mode sub- 
jonctif ? 747. Le subjonctif est-il toujours place apres le verbe qui lo 
gouverne? 748. Dans quels cas emploie-t-on les temps du present ou 
du passe du subjonctif? 749. Quelle est P exception a, cette regie? 
750. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur Pexpression conditionnelle 
sans? 751. Dans quels cas emploie-t-on Pimparfait et le plus-que- 
parfait du subjonctif? 752. Quelle est la premiere exception a cette 
regie? 753. Quelle en est la seconde? 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 335 



Use of the Infinitive Mode (50). 

754. Infinitives are used either as subjects or complements (457, 
461). 

755. When used as subjects, infinitives are governed by the rules 
in Nos. 64, 457, 693, and following. 

756. Used as complements, they must be unequivocally connected 
with words expressed in the sentence where they occur (67). 

Do not say: 

(Test pour faire des heureux que le Seigneur nous donne. 
Je t'instruis pour rendre service a, tes parents. 

Here the infinitives faire, rendre, have equivocal connections." 

Faire appears connected equally with Seigneur and nous; rendre, 
with je and te. 

It is impossible to tell whether it is the Lord or us who are to 
make people happy; whether it is you or I who are to oblige 
parents. 

In such sentences, instead of infinitives we must use other modes, 
in tenses or persons required by the signification. 

Therefore, using the subjunctive mode, we should say, instead of 
the above: 

Ex.: 

C'est pour que nous fassions des Is it that we should make people happy 

heureux que le Seigneur nous that our Lord is* giving us f 

donne? 

C'est pour que je rende service a tes 7* it to render service to your parent* 

parents que je t'instruits ? that I instruct you? 

C'est pour qu'il fasse des heureux que Is it that he should make people happy 

le Seigneur nous donne? that our Lord is giving us? 

C'est pour que tu rende service a tes Is it that you should oblige your parent* 

parent que je t'instruits ? that I instruct you ? 

756 bis. Remark. — Words connected with infinitives are some- 
times understood (484). In all such cases the sense should be so 
clear that the reader or hearer will find no difficulty in supplying 
the deficiency (855) ; and the connection of the infinitive with the 
understood word must leave no room for equivocation. 

Infinitives are thus used in the following sentences : 

29* 



336 ar. 

Ex.: 

m£die est faite poor rire, Comedy is made for laughter, 

Le savoir est trop precieux pour le Knowledge is too valuable to be neg- 

nfgliger, lected, 

La nuit se passa sans dormir, The might tea* spent without tltep ; 

where, by induction, we see plainly that in the first example nous, 
ice, pronoun of the first person plural, is understood; while that pro- 
noun is connected with the infinitive rire; and so in the other 
examples. 
The above constructions are equivalent to the following: 

Ex.: 
La eom&die est faite pour que nous riions (110), on faite pour faire lire. 

I avoir est trop precieux pour que nous le negligions, ou pour le negliger. 
La nuit se passa sans que nous dormissions, on sans que nous passions 
dormir. 

*5t. TThen, however, the use of infinitives does not render the 
meaning ambiguous, it is to be preferred, on account of conciseness, 
to the use of the indicative or subjunctive, which invariably give* 
to a style diffuseness, and, consequently, weakness. 

• 

II rant mieux qu'on soit malheureux que criminel, 
Msn Irere e>: cer:a:^ :"':1 ifnssira, 
say: 

Ex.: 
II vant mieux itre malheureux que Better to be unfortunate than guilty. 

cr inline.. 
Hon frere est certain de riussir, My brother U sure of succeeding. 

Remark. — In*connection with the verb faire, and the expression 
plus que, verbs in the infinitive answer to the imperfect tense used 
uglish, and faire in Fr-n:::. 



Son travail faisait pins que compemscr Hie work more tkam requited Id* fart* 

- - ;:::.::::, • 

?5S« With or without prepositions, infinitives may be complements 
of other verbs. A, de, pour, are mostly connected in such cases. 
Afin de may take the place of pour 

?59. Infinitives are not preceded by prepositions after* 
*Seell7: 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 337 

Aimer mieux, compter, croire, daigner, To love letter, to depend, to believe, to 

devoir, entendre, faire, falloir, deign, to owe, to hear, to do, to be 

s'imaginer, laisser, oser, pouvoir, necessary, to imagine, to let, to 

pretendre, savoir, sentir, vouloir, dare, to be able, to pretend, etc. 

Ex.: 

J'ai cru n'avoir an ciel que des graces 1 thought I had but thanks to return to 

a rendre, Heaven. 

Ah ! demeurez, seigneur, et daignez Ah ! stay, my lord, condescend to hear 

m'ecouter, me. 

Je voudrais inspirer l'amour de la I wish to inspire a taste for retirement. 

retraite, 

760* Infinitives are preceded by the preposition a, to, after 

Aimer, aider, s'attendre, s'entendre, To love, to help, to hear, to authorize, 

autoriser, balancer, consentir, to balance, to consent, to decide, to 

decider, desapprendre, encou- unlearn, to encourage, to exhort, to 

rager. exhorter, habituer, he\-iter, accustom, to hesitate, to be obstinate, 

s'obstiner. penser, persister, re- to think, to persist, to renounce, to be 

noncer, repugner, etc. (see 1177 , repugnant. 

Remark. — Decider requires de -when it is not connected with direct 
objects. 

Elle aimait a prevenir les injures par With her goodness she liked to prevent 

sa bonte, 

Je consens a le perdre afin de le T consent to lose him in order to save 

sauver, him. 

J'ai voulu m'obstiner a vous etre I strove to be faithful to you. 

fidele, 

On decida de le punir, They decided to punish him. 

761. Infinitives are preceded by the preposition de, after 

Appr£hender, craindre, dedaigner, To apprehend, to fear, to disdain, to 

d6fier, se dep£cher. d6sesp6rer, challenge, to despatch, to despair, 

desirer, d£tester, differer, discon- to wish, to hate, to delay, to stop, to 

tinuer. esp£rer, gagner, regretter, hope, to gain, to regret, to wish, to 

souhaiter, soup^onner, etc. (1178), suspect. 

Connected with verbs without prepositions intervening, infinitives 
are direct complements ; they are indirect when preceded by prepo- 
sitions. 
Je demande sa tete et crains de l'ob- / beg for his head and fear to obtain it. 

tenir." 
Ds ont desespSre* d'avoir mon secret, They despaired of obtaining possession 

of my secret. 
Je dSfiais ses yeux de me troubler I defied his or her eyes to be a cause of 
jamais, trouble to me. 

762. Remark. — After the verbs disirer, d&ester, esperer, sou- 
haiter, the preposition de may be dropped. 

AVe may say with or without preposition: 



ooS GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Je dlsire de sortir, ou je desire sortir, I wish to go out. 
Taste or euphony must be our guide in such cases. 

763. Infinitives are preceded by the preposition d or de, after 

Continuer, contraindre, determiner, To continue, to constrain, to determine, 

s'empresser, engager, essay er, to hasten, to engage, to try, to fail, 

faillir. forcer, obliger, resoudre, to force, to oblige, to resolve, to 

solliciter, souffrir, tarder, prendre solicit, to suffer, to long, to take 

garde, care. 

As we have already remarked, taste or euphony are to be consulted 
in such cases. 

Ex.: 

H contraignit cinq legions romaines JETe forced five Roman legions to lay 

a deposer les amies sans combat, down their arms without fighting. 

Et lui-meme au torrent nous contraint And himself obliges us to give way to 

de elder, the torrent. 

?64. In French, two infinitives may be placed one after the other. 
In such cases, the second infinitive is the complement of the first 
(69). 

Ex.: 

Je veux le lui faire savoir, I will let him know it. 

Je n'ose leur permettre d'Scrire, I do not dare to allow them to write. 

But three or four consecutive infinitives will render a style diffuse, 
be disagreeable to the ear and contrary to the practice of good writers. 
Therefore we must not say: 

Je crois pouvoir aller voir yos parents. 

Js'allez pas croire savoir faire jouer tous les ressorts de Eloquence. 

To be clear and correct we must drop some of the infinitives, and 
resort to another method of construction. 

Je crois que je pourrai aller voir vos I think I will be able to see your rela- 

parents, tions. 

N'allez pas croire que vous sachiez Do not persuade yourself that you may 

faire jouer tous les ressorts de move all the springs of eloquence. 

l'eloquence, 

Remark. — Expressions rendered in one language by means of 
verbs may not be so rendered in the other. Clearness in the expres- 
gion of thought must always be our guide. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 339 

Ex.: 

Leurs attentions reveillerent cet Their attention awakened that pride 
orgueil latent mais toujours vivace ichich had lain dormant. 

qui etait en nous, 

Affirmative in one language, without change in the meaning, ex- 
pressions may sometimes be rendered in the negative form. In 
either language we may say : 

Ex.: 
Hestez ici ou ne partez pas; detester Stay here or do not leave; to hate or 
ou ne pas aimer, not to love. 

QUESTIONS. 

754. Comment emploie-t-on les infinitifs ? 755. Aquelles regies sont 
soumis les infinitifs employes comme sujets? 756. Comment faut-il 
les employer quand ils servent de complement? 756 bis. Quelle est 
la remarque a faire sur l'emploi des infinitifs ? 757. Dans quel cas 
faut-il employer rinfinitifde preference a tout autre mode? 758. Un 
infinitif complement d'un autre doit-il etre toujours prOcedO d'une pro- 
position ? 759. Dans quels cas ces infinitifs ne sont-ils point precOdOs 
de prepositions ? 760. Quand ces infinitifs sont-ils precOdes de la 
proposition a? 761. Quand le sont-ils par la preposition de? 762. 
Quelle est la remarque a faire sur l'emploi de la preposition de avec 
certains verbes ? 763. Quels sont les infinitifs qui peuvent etre prO- 
eOdOs de la proposition d ou de? 764. Peut-on employer plusieurs 
infinitifs a la suite les uns des autres, et quelle est la limite a cet 
emploi ? 



CHAPTER EIGHTH. 

Present Participle (267). 

765. Present participles always remain invariable, as shown in 

the following example (354). 

Ex.: 

Le temps est un vrai brouillon, met- Time is atrue spoiler of things ; it places, 

tant, remettant, rangeant, im- replaces, puts in order, impresses, 

primant, effagant, rapprochant, erases, brings near, removes, and 

Sloignant, etrendanttouteschoses makes every thing good or bad. 
bonnes ou mauvaises, ' 



340 GRAMMAR. 

766. Present participles must not be confounded with verbal 
adjectives ending also in ant (265 bis, 325). These invariably indi- 
cate qualities or modes of existence in subjects, with which they 
agree in gender and number. 

Ex.: 

Des esprits bas et rampants ne s'elevent Low and grovelling minds never rise into 

jamais au sublime, sublimity. 

La passion dominante de Cesar etait Csesar's predominant passion was am- 

l'ainbition, bition. 

•767. Present participles express actions; In their stead may be 
used another tense preceded by qui or one of the conjunctions lors- 
que, parceque, puisque, comme, etc. 

Ex.: 

C'est un homme d'un bon caractere, He is a well-inclined man, obliging his 

obligeant ses amis quand Tocca- friends upon occasion. 

sion s'en presente, 

Ces homines prevoyant le danger se Foreseeing danger, those men kept on 

mirent sur leurs gardes, their guard. 

Les hommes aimant tout le monde Those who love everybody generally 

n'aiment ordinairement personne, love no one. 

■ In the foregoing examples we might say : 

Qui oblige ses amis, qui prevoyaient le danger, qui aiment tout le monde. 

768. Verbal adjectives, on the contrary, mark state or manner of 
being in the substantives with which they are connected. They may 
be constructed with one of the tenses of the verb etre, to be, and, 
instead of marking action in subjects as do present participles, they 
express qualifies or modes of existence. 

Ex.: 

Ce sont des hommes obligeants, These or those are obliging men. 

Ces hommes prevoyants ayant apercu Those prudent men having seen the 

le danger, danger. 

Les personnes aimantes ont plus de Loving persons have more enjoyments 
jouissances que les autres, than others. 

Here we might say, with Stre, to be, preceded by the relative qui, 

who, 

Ex.: 
Des hommes qui sont obligeants, Men who are obliging. 

Des hommes qui sont prevoyants, Men who are prudent. 

Des personnes qui sont aimantes, Persons who are loving. 

769. When it has a direct complement (69), the qualificative 
ending in ant is a present participle. In such cases there is action, 
which is always indicated by direct complements. 



SYNTAX OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 341 

Ex.: 

Cette question embarrassant notre That reflection puzzling our gentleman. 

homme, 

On ne dort point, dit-il, quand on a With so much wit, say* he, people can~ 

tant d'esprit, not sleep. 

Vois cos groupes d'enfants se jouant See those groups of children playing 

sous l'ombrage, in the shade. 

Remark. — Se jouant, in the last example, conjugated reflectively, 
is a poetical turn to avoid the use of the expressions entre eux or 
ensemble, which would destroy the measure of the verse (1154). 

HO. When it has no complement, the qualifying ending in ant 
is generally a verbal adjective. In that case it often marks state 
instead of action in subjects (325). 

Ex.: 

Un geste pittoresque et des regards A picturesque gesture and expressive 

parlants, looks. 

On apercevait sur la mer des mats et Upon the sea were seen masts and drifted 

des cordages flottants, rigging. 

HI. When it has only indirect complements, the qualifier end- 
ing in ant (354) is either a present participle or a verbal adjective. 

Present participle, when the meaning indicates action in the subject. 

Verbal adjective, when the signification marks simply situation or 
state. 

Ex.: 

On voit la tendre ros£e degouttant The soft dew is seen dropping from the 

des feuilles, leaves. 

On voit la sueur ruisselant sur son The sweat is seen rolling on his or her 

visage, face. 

Here the meaning is : 

La ros6e qui degoutte des feuilles ; la sueur qui ruisselle sur son visage. 

That marks action; consequently, being present participles, de- 
gouttant, ruisselant, remain invariable. 

Voyez-vous ces feuilles degouttantes Do you see those leaves dropping with 

de rosee ? dew t 

Voyez sa figure ruisselante de sueur, See his or her face rolling with sweat. 

In these sentences, it is the state and manner of being in the 
subject, on the contrary, that are expressed. The meaning is : 

Qui sont degouttantes de ros6e? "What are dropping with dew t — The 

leaves. 
Qui est ruisselante de sueur ? What is running with sxoeat? — The 

face. 



342 GRAMMAR. 

Consequently, being verbal adjectives, dfyouttante, ruisselante, must 
agree in gender and number with the substantives feuilles, visage, 
which the j qualify (556). 

111%. Remark. — Qualifying adjectives ending in ant (265 bis) are 
present participles, and therefore invariable : 

1st. When preceded or followed by negations, in which case the 
meaning marks state instead of action, 

Ex.: 

Des ecoliers ne travaillant pas, Pupils not- working. 

N" aimant pas l'Stude (764), Disliking study. 

uYe repondant pas aux soins qu'on leur Not answering to the cares bestowed 
donne, upon them. 

2d. When connected with the preposition en, expressed or under- 
stood, action being always meant in such cases. 
Ex.: 

Les hommes apprennent a vaincre Men learn how to overcome their pas- 

leurs passions en les combattant, sions by resisting them. 

La mer mugissant ressemblait a une The roaring sea resembled an incensed 

personne_irrit€e, person. 

Preceded by the preposition en, present participles are called 
girondifs in French. They always express action in the subject, 
and remain invariable, as shown in the foregoing examples. 

On account of euphony, the preposition en is often dropped before 
gerunds. 

QUESTIONS. 

765. Le participe present est-il sujet a P accord ou a la suppres- 
sion du t final ? 766. Avec quelle sorte de mots ne faut-il pas con- 
fondre le participe present? 767. Qu'exprime le participe present? 
768. Qu'exprime l'adjectif verbal ? 769. Dans quel cas le qualificatif 
termini en ant devient-il participe present ? 770. Dans quel cas 
est-il adjectif verbal? 771. Dans quel cas peut-il §tre adjectif ou 
participe? 772. Quand appelle-t-on le participe present g6rondif ? 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 343 



CHAPTER NINTH; 

Past Participle (269). 

Past Participle used without Auxiliary. 

773. Used without auxiliaries, past participles agree in gender 
and number with the words with which they are connected, just as 
qualifying adjectives do with the substantives to which they relate. 

Ex.: 

Que de remparts detruits, que de villes How many destroyed walls, how many 

forcees, forced towns, 

Que de moissons de gloire en courant How many harvests of glory gathered in 

amass ees f running I 

Les inimities sourdes et cachees sont Secret hate is more to be dreaded than 

plus a craindre que les haines open dislike. 

ouvertes et diclarees, 

774. Used without auxiliaries, the past participles excepts, sup- 
pose*, passe*, etc., when placed before the words they modify, remain 
invariable. 

Ex.: 

Excepte mes amis, My friends excepted, or except my 

friends. 
Suppose ces faits, Those facts being supposed. 

Passe cette heure, That hour being over. 

775. When placed at the beginning or end of some administrative 
or judiciary forms, the same takes place with the past participles ap- 
prouve*, certifie*, vu (568) ; viz., they do not agree with subjects (780). 

Ex.: 

Approuvi rScriture ci-dessus ou ci- The foregoing or subjoined writing being 

dessous, approved. 

Certifie la prSsente copie conforme a The present copy being certified true to 

l'original, the original. 

Vu par la cour les pieces mentionnges, The specified documents havmg been 

seen by the court. 

Yet with agreement in the participles we must say : 
Ex.: 

Mes amis excepts, La presente copie certifiSe conforme, 

Ces faits suppose, Les pieces mentioned vuesparla cour, 

Cette heure passee, L'ecriture ci-dessus approuvee, 

because the participles excepts, suppose*, passe*, certifie*, vu, approuvi, 

are preceded by amis, faits, heure, substantives which they modify. 

30 



344 GRAMMAR. 

Past Participle used with §tre (261). 

716. Connected with the auxiliary $tre, past participles agree 
with the subject of that verb. 
Ex.: 

Le fer est Smousse, les buchers sont The sword is blunted, the fires are extin- 

eteints, guished. 

La vertu obscure est souvent meprisee, Modest virtue is often despised. 

Les Grecs etaient persuades que Tame The Greeks were convinced of the soul's 

est immortelle, immortality. 

Subjects are sometimes placed after past participles. That inver- 
sion does not prevent the agreement of the participles with their 
subject (861). 

Ex.: 
Quand il vit Fume ou etaient ren- When he saw the urn in which were 
fermees les cendres d'Hippias, il deposited the ashes of Hippias, he 

versa un torrent de larmes, shed a torrent of tears. 

Past Participle employed with avoir (261). 

W1. Accompanied by avoir, past participles agree with direct 
complements when preceded by them ; when those complements come 
after participles, or when there is no direct complement, past 
participles remain invariable (69, 72). 

Therefore with agreement in past participles we must write : 

Voici la lettre que j'ai recue, This is the letter I have received (829). 

Voici les lettres que j'ai recues, These are the letters I have received. 

Ou est ton livre ? Je Z'ai perdu, Where is your book ? I have lost it. 

Ou est ta plume ? Je Z'ai perdue, Where is your pen ? I have lost it. 
Ou sont tes livres ? Je les ai perdus, Where are your books t I have lost 

them. 

lis tw/ont f61icit6, They congratulated me. 

II nous a felicites, He has congratulated us. 

Mon fils, nous Savons recompensed Son, toe have rewarded thee. 

Mes fils, je vous ai recompenses, Sons, I have rewarded you. 

Quelle peine j'ai eprouvee ! What trouble I have experienced J 

Que de desagrements ils m'ont causes ! What unpleasant feelings they caused 

me ! 

Combien de livres avez-vous lus ? How many books have you been reading t 

because the past participles recue, regues, perdu, perdue, perdus, 
f&iciU, feliciUs, recompense', recompense's, etc., are preceded by their 
direct complements que, le, la, me, nous, te, vous, se, or a substantive 
preceded by quel, que de, combien de. See 67 and following for what 
has been said on complements, or 655. 

^"V8. From the foregoing examples we see that direct complements 
when they precede participles are represented by one of the pro- 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 345 

nouns que, le, la, me, nous, te, vous, se (71, 72), or by substantives 
preceded by quel, que de, combien de, relative pronouns or adverbs 
of quantity. 

779. Yet without agreement we must write: 

Ex.: 

Nous avons recu votre lettre, We received your letter, 

lis ont perdu leurs lhres, (566), They have lost their books, 

J'ai recompense mes fils, / rewarded my sons, 

because the words votre lettre, leurs limes, mes fits, direct comple- 
ments, are placed after the participles regu, perdu, recompense'. 
Without change in participles we should also write : 

Ex.: 

lis ont repondu a notre attente, They answered our expectation. 

Nous avons chante a sa louange, We sang to his or her praise (367). 

Cette armee a peri de misere, That army perished from want. 

The verbs rtpondre, chanter, p6rir, having no direct complements, 
participles cannot be preceded by them (777). 

7§0. (1.) Contrary to cases where §tre, to be, is used (776), 
subjects have no influence on participles of verbs conjugated with 
avoir. 

Remark. — Having as antecedent a subject, the relative pronoun 
qui, who, cannot exert any influence on participles. Announcing 
an incidental proposition (480), its office is conjunctive rather than 
relative (478). 

Ex.: 

Superbes montagnes, quirowsaetablies Proud mountains, who set you on 
sur vos fondements ? Qui a eleve* your foundations? Who raised 

vos tetes jusqu'au nues ? your heads to the clouds ? 

In this example qui stands for celui qui, la personne qui, subject 
of the incidental proposition (478). Preceded by its direct object, 
vous, the participle itablies agrees with that direct object repre- 
senting montagnes. On the contrary, followed by the direct object 
vos tetes, the participle 4lev£ remains invariable, though preceded by 
the relative qui subject of that incidental proposition (479). 

Our remark applies also to neuter or pronominal verbs formed 



346 GRAMMAR. 

from neuter verbs, having their past participle preceded by tho 
relative pronoun qui. Those participles always remain invariable. 

Ex.: 

Les hommes qui ont le plus vecu, The men who have lived longest . 

Les rois qui se sont succedS, The kings who followed. 

Tous les aniniaux et tousles vegetaux All the animals and plants which have 
qui ont exists, existed. 

Therefore, subjects having no action on past participles conjugated 
with avoir, relative pronouns representing those subjects cannot 
exert any influence on them (457), unless represented by que (374). 

7S1. Neuter verbs using avoir have always their participles in- 
variable, these verbs having no direct complement (87, 91). 
In such sentences as these: 
Ex.: 

Les cinq heures que j'ai dormi, The five hours I slept, 

Les dix ans que j'ai vecu, The ten years I lived, 

Les deux semaines que j'»i passe" a The two weeks I spent in writing, 
£crire, 

participles do not change ; because, though presented under the shape 
of direct complement, the word que in reality is an indirect one, an- 
swering to pendant lesquelles (1247). 

They correspond to the following : 

Ex.: 

Les cinq heures pendant lesquelles The five hours during which I 

j'ai dormi, slept. 

Les dix ans pendant lesquels j'ai The ten years during ichich I 

vecu. lived. 

Les deux semaines pendant lesquelles The tico weeks during which I 

j'ai ecrit, wrote. 



L 414. 



Past Participles of Pronominal or Reflective Verbs (93). 

TS2. As etre, to be (95), is used instead of avoir, to have, with 
pronominal or reflective verbs, the participles of those verbs are sub- 
ject to the rules which govern verbs conjugated with avoir; viz.: 
participles of pronominal verbs, when preceded by them, agree with 
direct complements ; when direct complements follow participles, or 
when there are no direct complements, past participles remain in- 
variable (100, 102, 777). 

Therefore with agreement in participles we will write: 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 347 



Ex.: 



La lettre qu'ils se sont adressee, The letter they addressed to themselves, 

lis se la sont montree, They showed it to each other, 

lis se sont blames, They blamed themselves, 

the participles adressi, montre", blame*, being preceded by the pro- 
nouns que, la, se, their direct complements. In the first two 
examples, which, direct complement, is understood in English. 

Remark. — The pronoun se in the first two sentences is an indirect 
object, answering to a eux, to themselves (74). In the last, the same 
pronoun is a direct object, corresponding with eux, them (73). 

Without variation in participles we will write (716) : 

Ex.: 

lis se sont 6crit, They wrote to themselves, 

Tls se sont succ6d£, They succeeded one to the other. 

Nous nous sommes parle", We spoke to ourselves. 

Ecrit, parle", succeeds, having no direct complement, as shown in 
the English examples, those participles remain invariable. The pro- 
nouns se, nous, are indirect objects, answering to d eux, d nous (74). 

From the foregoing rule we deduce the following: 

783. Past participles of verbs essentially pronominal (97) are 
always subject to agreement; those verbs having for direct comple- 
ment their objective pronoun which precedes the participle (777). 

Therefore we will write (94, 95) : 
Ex.: 

Nous nous sommes abstenus de toute We abstained from remarks. 

reflexion, 

Mes amis, vous vous etes repentis de Friends, you repented of your giddiness, 

votre legerete, 

Les troupes se sont emparees de la The troops seized the town, 

ville, 

Here the participles abstenus, repentis, emparees, agree with the 
direct objects nous, vous, se, preceding them. 

784. Remark. — Participles of pronominal verbs having their 
objective pronoun as indirect object may have direct complements. 
On the contrary, those essentially reflective (97) having as direct 
complement their objective pronoun take only indirect objects (68) 
after them. 

30* 



348 GRAMMAR. 



Ex.: 



Nous nous sommes arroge* le droit de We arrogated to ourselves the right of 

le faire, doing it. 

Elle se sont achete des robes % They bought gowns for themselves. 

Nous nous sommes assises sur une We seated ourselves on a chair. 

chaise, 

In the first two examples, the participles arrogg, achete, being 
followed by their direct complements le droit, des robes, remain in- 
variable (777); the pronouns nous, se, which precede being indirect 
objects (74), answering to d nous, d elles, d lux, d eux, etc. 

Ex.: 

Nous avons arroge* le droit a nous, That right we arrogated to ourselves, 

etc., 
Elles ont achete des robes a elles, etc., They bought gowns for themselves, etc. 

In the last of the above examples, the participle assise agrees with 
the pronoun nous, direct object preceding it. 

Des when it answers to some announces a direct complement (537) ; 
an indirect when answering to of the (536), or any. 

Exception. — The essentially pronominal verb s f arroger, as shown 
in the foregoing examples, never has its second pronoun as direct 
object (99). Without agreement we must write: 

Ex.: 

II se sont arroge* des droits, They arrogated some rights to them- 

selves, 

des droits, some rights, standing after the participle arrogi (777), 
being a direct object. But with agreement we will write: 

Ex.: 

Les droits oVils se sont arrogSs, elle The rights they arrogated to themselves, 
se les est arroge s, she arrogated to herself. 

Here the pronouns direct complements que, les, precede the par- 
ticiple (777) arroge'. 

Remark. — Which, in English, representing que, les, is often not 
expressed in sentences like the above. 

785. Participles of pronominal verbs formed from neuter verbs 
remain always invariable. Such verbs having no direct complement 

* Or with agreement, " Les robes ^u'elles se sont achete*es," que, direct 
object, preceding the participle. 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 



349 



(87), their objective pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, Us, answering 
to a moi, a toi, a lui, a nous, a vous, a eux, a elles (74), to me, to 
thee, to Mm, to her, to us, to you, to them, have no power on participles 
(777). Such are: 

Se plaire, se deplaire, se complaire, To please one self, to displease, to 

se rire, se sourire, se parler, se smile, to speak, to succeed, to injure, 

succeder, se convenir, se nuire, to agree, to resemble, to be self- 

se ressembler, se suffire, etc., sufficient, etc. 

Accordingly, without agreement in participles we should write 

(706,777): 

Ex.: 

Nous nous sommes 

nui, 
Vous vous 6tes plu, 



lis se sont succede, 
Elles se sont parle, 



Nous avons nui d We have injured ourselves. 

nous, 
Vous avez plu d You have pleased yourselves. 

vous, 
lis ont succede d They succeeded to themselves. 

eux, 
Elles ont parle" d They spoke to themselves. 

elles,* 



In the two languages, the same verbs may require different com- 
plements, as has been shown in the foregoing examples. Nuire, 
plaire, in French require indirect complements ; they take direct 
objects in English (706). 



786 

verbs : 



From the above rule are to be excepted the three pronominal 



Se douter, 
Se prevaloir, 
S'echapper, 



To suspect, 
To prevail, 
To escape, 



whose participles are required by custom to agree with their objective 
pronoun, though that pronoun be an indirect object (74), answering 
to d moi, d toi, d lui, d elle, etc. With those verbs the auxiliary tire 
is used in its proper acceptation (95, 776), and requires agreement in 
participles. 
Ex.: 

Nous nous 6tions doutes de cette per- We suspected that treachery. 

fidie, 

lis se sont echappes de prison, They escaped from jail. 

Elles se sont prevalues de notre sim- They took advantage of our honesty. 

plicite, 



* By means of direct constructions alone can learners find the elements of 
sentences rendered in their grammatical form. In a language so figurative 
as the French, there can be no grammatical parsing without the use of direct 
constructions (73, 74). 



850 GRAMMAR. 

Though neuter or intransitive, those verbs are governed by the 
rules of syntax of active or transitive verbs. 

For false theories, see Pujol and Van Norman, pp. 240-269. 

Concerning past participles, the four rules we have given will meet 
every possible case; but, as their application may still offer some 
difficulties, we subjoin a few remarks on special points (773, 776, 
777, 782). 

Remarks on the Use of some Participles. 

T8T. Remarks. — (1.) Participles 6f unipersonal verbs remain 

always invariable (264 bis) ; viz. : they retain the masculine singu- 
lar form (103). 

Ex.: 

H est arrivi de grands malheurs, Great disasters have taken place. 

II s'est glisse une erreur, An error has crept in. 

Les mauvais temps qu'il y a eu, The bad weather we had. 

Les chaleurs qu'il a fait, The heat there has been. 

In the first example the participle arrivi agrees with its sub- 
ject il, masculine singular (104), £tre, to be, having the meaning of 
avoir, to have (95), the expression answering to : 

De grands malheurs ont eu lieu, Great disasters have taken place. 

In the second the participle glisse* agrees with the direct com- 
plement se, singular masculine representing the word it (374) ; tire 
again answering to avoir, the expression corresponding with : 

Une erreur a glisse elle (73), An error has crept in. 

In the last two examples, the verbs avoir, faire, having lost their 
active signification and marking simply existence or state in the 
weather (bad weather or heat being beyond our control), que, the pre- 
ceding relative pronoun, is the complement of no verb. Such ex- 
pressions, defying all rules for parsing, are called Gallicisms, or 
French idioms. 

■788. (2.) Standing between two ques, past participles are also in- 
variable. 
Ex.: 

La reponse que j'avais pre>u qu'on The answer I foresaw you would re- 

vous ferait, ceive. 

Les embarras que j'ai su que voub The troubles I knew you had. 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 351 

In such cases, participles have as complement *the proposition 
which follows them (485). 



( What have I foreseen * ( That an answer would be 

Queries : \ Answer : I made to you. 

( What did I know? ( That you had troubles. 



Those direct complements coming after the participles prevu, su, 
according to 777, they remain invariable. 

T89. (3.) Representing a member of a sentence, I stands for direct 
complement, answering to cela, that or it. Coming after the past 
participle, we must write, without agreement (777) : 

Cette lettre est plus interessante que That letter is more interesting than I 

je ne /'avais cru, had thought. 

1/ affaire fut moins serieuse que je ne That affair icas less serious than I had 

J'avais pense, anticipated. 

Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme je That perfidy took place as I thought it 

Z'avais suppose, would. 

La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph Famine came as Joseph predicted. 

£' avait predit, 

Answering in meaning to : 



Cette lettre est plus interessante que je n'avais cru quelle itait intlressante. 
L'affaire fut moins serieuse que je n'avais pense qu'elle serait serieuse. 
Cette perfidie eut lieu comme j'avais suppose qu'elle aurait lieu. 
La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph avait predit qu'elle arriverait. 

Remark. — The words in italics represent the incidental proposition, 
rendered by I in the preceding examples ; sentences in which incidental 
propositions (477) stand for direct complements after the participles 
cru, pense*, suppose*, pridit. 

Therefore, when it represents the pronouns le, la, les, him, her, 
them, it (375), having for antecedent a substantive, I requires the 
agreement of participles which it precedes. 

Ex.: 

La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph Such as predicted by Joseph, the famine 

r avait predite, took place. 

Cette lettre arriva telle qu'on V avait Such as they wrote it, that letter came 

ecrite, to hand. 

In the first examples, answering to cela, I coming after participles 
leaves them invariable (777). 



352 GRAMMAR. 

In the last, having as antecedents famine, lettre, and preceding 
the participles pr6d.it, e'er it, I requires their agreement (777). In 
those cases, the agreement of participles depends on the meaning in- 
tended to be conveyed. 

We must write vrith agreement, I being a direct object, answering 
to il, elle, eux, Jie, she, they ; 

Ex.: 

Tout le monde Yen a blamg, ou blame" Everybody blamed him 

lui, 
Personne ne Yen a blamSe, ou blam€ Nobody blamed her \ for it. 

elle, 
Peu les en ont blames, ou blame eux, Few blamed them 

because the participle blame', preceded by the direct complements 
2 answering to him, her, them (according to rule 623), is placed be- 
fore the indirect object en, de cela, for it understood. 

790. (4.) Followed immediately by infinitives, participles agree 
with pronouns preceding them when those pronouns are direct com- 
plements ; they remain invariable should these infinitives be their 
complements. 

Ex.: 

Cette femme chante bien, je V&i en- That woman sings well, I heard her 
tendue chanter, sing. 

Query: Whom have I heard? answer, elle, she, elle chanter; there- 
fore, T, elle, she, is the direct complement of the participle. Pre- 
ceding it, there must be agreement. 

Ex.: 

Cette romance est charmante, je l'ai That ballad is pretty, I heard it sung. 
entendu chanter, 

Query: What have I heard? answer, elle, it, chanter elle, the 
ballad. In this case V, elle, it, coming after the participle, there is 
no need of agreement (791). 

Ex.: 

Je les ai laisses partir, / let them go. 

Query: Whom did I let? answer, them depart, eux partir. Eux, les, 
them (73), preceding the past participle, there must be agreement 
(777). 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 353 



Ex.: 



Us se sont laisse" surprendre par They let the enemy surprise them. 
l'ennemi, 

Query: What did they let? surprise them, surprendre eux. Sur- 
prendre eux following the participle and being its direct complement, 
there must be no agreement (777). 

191. Observation. — In the last two examples, followed by infini- 
tives the past participle laisse" is subject to the rules which govern 
past participles followed by infinitives, — viz., it varies when pre- 
ceded by direct complements, and remains invariable when they 
follow it. 

It may serve as a mechanical guide to remark that past participles 
followed immediately by infinitives are preceded by direct comple- 
ments when those infinitives can be changed into present participles 
(769). When that change cannot be made, participles have the in- 
finitive for direct complement. 

Ex.: 

Je le8 ai vim repousser les ennemis, I have seen them repelling the enemy. 

II nous a entendus blamer son impru- He heard us blaming his imprudence. 

dence, 

II se sont y us deperir, They sate themselves perishing. 

With the present participle we might say: 

Je les ai vus repoussant les ennemis. Je les ai entendus bldmant son impru- 
dence, lis se sont vus deperissant. 

Preceded by direct complements, which in the foregoing examples 
are les, nous, se, they, us, themselves, participles according to rule 777, 
must agree with those direct complements. 

In the following examples : 

Je les ai vu repousser par les ennemis, I saw them repelled by the enemy (701), 

or enemies, 
II nous a entendu blamer de notre im- Me heard us blamed for our impru- 

prudence, dence, 

II se sont vu maltraiter, They saw themselves abused, 

we cannot with any rational meaning make use of the present 
participle, — past participles here having as direct complements the 
infinitives repousse)', blamer, maltraiter, placed after them (777): 
therefore those past participles vu, entendu, must remain invariable. 



354 GRAMMAR. 

From the foregoing examples and rules, it will be seen that when- 
ever actions expressed by verbs are performed by their subjects, 
participles must agree with the objective pronoun preceding them. 
"When that action is performed by others, participles remain in- 
variable. 

In the first case, infinitives in French answer to present participles 
in English. 

In the last, the same infinitives correspond "to past participles. 

Ex.: 

st vns deperir, They saw themselves perishing (769). 

imer, They sate themselves blamed. 

* 

?9'2. Followed by one or more infinitive- ":- the -: parti- 
ciple fait is an exception to the foregoing; it remains always in- 
variable. With the infinitives following it, it forms something like a 
gfe verb indivisible as to the sense. Therefore, when no preposition 
~ is between fait and the infinitive, the pronoun direct complement 
preceding the participle and the infinitive belongs to both. 

Ex.: 

Louis XL fit taire ceux qu'il avait Louis XL silenced those vchom he had 

. . . fa it parler si bien, mad* talk so freely. 

Le n£goce qui Favait/ai* neurir servit Trade, the cause of its splendor, helped 

a la retablir, to restore it. 

793. After the past participles of pouvoir, devoir, vouloir. infini- 
tives complements of those participles may in both languages be 
understood. 

Je lui ai f que j'ai dft | / obliged ( teas bound to ^ 

rendu toua <quej'aipu Vluirendre, him as < could > oblige him. 

services (que j'ai voulu J much as I ( would J 

I participles in those cases remain invariable ; their direct 
■complements the infinitives understood being placed after them. 

794. The participles dti, toulu, are variable in sentences such as 
these: 

II m'a paye" lea sommes qu'il m'a dues, He paid me the sums he otced me* 
H veut fortement lea choses qu^U. a une He strongly wills what he has resolved. 
foia voulues, 

Here there is no infinitive understood, and the direct complement 
que stands before both participles (777). 

195. Wkm prepositions stand between participles and infini- 

tives, such participles may have for direct complements one of tho 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 



355 



pronouns preceding or one of the infinitives following those parti- 
ciples. In the first case, according to rule 777, participles agree 
with the objective pronoun if a direct complement; they remain 
invariable should that complement be the infinitive they precede. 
Therefore, with variation in the participle we will write : 

Ex.: 

Les personnes que j'avais engagees a The persons I had persuaded to see you 

vous voir sont ici, are here. 

II nous a pries de lui ecrire, He begged we would write to him. 

lis se sont proposes de Faccompagner, They offered to accompany him. 



Queries : 



Whom have we engaged to 
see you ? 

Who were begged to write 
to htm t 

Who have offered to ac- 
company him ? 



The persons represented by 

que. 
The persons represented by 

nous. 
The persons represented by 



73. 



Que, nous, se, or eux (73, 74), direct complements preceding the 
participles engage", prit, propose*, must according to rule 777 agree 
with those direct complements. 

Nevertheless, without agreement we should write : 

Les personnes que j'avais desire* de The persons I wished to see are here. 

voir sont ici, 

II nous a reconimande de lui ecrire, He recommended ua to write to him. 

II se sont propose de Faccompagner, They intended to accompany him. 



Queries 



; { 



What did I wish ? 

What has been recommended t 

What did they intend ? 



Those answers : de voir les personnes, de lui Scrire, de Faccom- 
pagner, indirect complements of the participles disire, recommande, 
propose, must according to rule 777 leave them invariable : indirect 
complements having no influence on participles. 

T96. "When participles are preceded by two direct complements, 

as in the following sentence, there must be agreement. 

Ex.: 

Les livres qu'il nous a pries de lui The books he begged we should lend 
preter, him. 

The direct complement first enunciated belongs in such cases to 
the infinitive; the second, to the past participle (777). 

•^97. Observation. — With the past participles eu, donn6, followed 
by the preposition d preceding (795) infinitives, the direct coniple- 

31 



356 GRAMMAR. 

nient preceding the participle may with as much propriety belong 
to those participles as to the infinitives. Consequently, according to 
the meaning, those participles eu donne*, may be written either 
variable or invariable. 
Ex.: 

Les obstacles que j'ai eus a" sur- 

monter, 
ou les obstacles que j'ai em a sur- 

monter, 
Les lecons ^w'on m'a donnees a ap- 

prendre, 
ou les lecons qu'on m'a donne a 

apprendxe, 



J'ai eu des obstacles a surmonter, 

J'ai eu a surmonter des obstacles. 

On m'a donne des lecons a ap- 

prendre, 
On m'a donne a apprendre des 

It corn, 

The obstacles I had to surmount, or, I had to surmount obstacles, 
The lessons I had to learn, or, I had to ham less 

are examples showing that participles connected with avoir will 
agree when preceded by direct complements, but remain invariable 
when those complements follow participle- "77 . 

79S. (6.) Le pen, we have seen - susceptible of two signi- 

fications. That general collective (276) may signify a small quan- 
tity or total leant, — the latter idea expressed by le manque. 

Using a figure of syntax called syllepsis (860), contrary to the rule 
governing general collective participles will agree with sub- 

stantives following le pen. In that case, retaining its partitive signi- 
fication, le peu answers to a little, in English (536, 537). 

Ex.: 

Le pen d'affection que vous lui avez Th.e little affection you showed him has 
temoignee lui a rendu le courage. been an encouragement to him* 

Here le pen is partitive, for there has been some affection shown. 
The participle temoigne must therefore agree with the direct com- 
plement que. representing the substantive affection. 

In the second case, when the meaning indicates complete leant, 
allowing the substitution of the words le manque, le defaut, according 
to rule 698, participles must agree with general collectives. 

Ex.: 

Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez Your want of affection discouraged 
temoigne Fa decourage, him. 

In the first example, by means of syllepsis the participle Umoigne* 
agrees with que representing the substantive affect tun. claiming m 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 357 

our attention. In the last, according to the rule indicated in the 
foregoing lines, it agrees in gender and number with the general 
collective le peu, answering to le manque, le dSfaut, the want, in 

English (702). 

799. (7.) Remark. — The pronoun en* used for persons and things, 
answering to de lui, d'elle, d'eux, de cela, of him, of her, of them, 
of it, of that (70), having always a vague meaning, on account of the 
preposition de, of, is an indirect complement without power on parti- 
ciples (777). See (1243, 582). 

Speaking of friends, children, fruits, or letters, we will say : 

Ex.: 

Ten ai eu beaucoup (377) (d'amis), I have had many (friends). 

Nous en avons perdu (des enfants), We have lost some (children). 

Vous en avez mange (des fruits), You ate some (fruits). . 

lis en ont recu plusieurs (des lettres), They received several (letters). 

Those elliptical propositions correspond with the following (854) : 

J'ai eu une certaine quantite d'amis, nous avons perdu une certaine quantite 
d'enfants, nous avons mange une certaine quantite de fruit, ils ont recu 
MM certain nombre de lettres. 

Une certaine quantite', tin certain nombre, being the direct comple- 
ments understood after the participles eu, perdu, mang€, regu, accord- 
ing to rule 777, those participles remain invariable. 

Ex.: 

II a des troupes, et il en a demande aux He has troops, and has demanded more 

autres peuples de la Grrece, from the other Grecian nations. 

Helas ! j'etais aveugle en mes voeux Alas! how blind I was in my wishes 

aujourd'Kui, to-day ! 

J'en ai fait contre moi quand j'en ai They were against me when made in his 

fait pour lui, favor. 

* Here the pronoun en is a real substitute, not a mere reference to its ante- 
cedent, as the Xew Method seems to imply, p. 449. The query : avez-vous 
des livres ? have you boohs? has a determinate (1178 bis) meaning. The 
answer: j'en ai, in English, I have some, is partitive (1243), that sentence 
being elliptical. The word en, it would seem, is a nightmare for the member 
of the University of Michigan. In the present case, though furnishing an 
adequate answer to the question, en does not answer the professor's views. 
According to the same authority (see Fasquelle's Xew Method, p. 139-1), en 
is a pronoun when grammar calls it an adverbial expression. Dans has not 
so extensive a meaning as en (ibid. p. 445-2); yet, in spite of the doctor's 
opinion, with the last word we will say, en prison ; with the first, dans le monde. 



358 GRAMMAR. 

Nevertheless with agreement in participles we should say : 
Ex.: 

Nous Im en avons infonnes, We informed them of that. 

II nous en a blitnies. He blamed us for it. 

L'opinion que yen avais concue, The opinion I had conceived of that. 

Elle s'en est vantee assez publique- She boasted publicly of it. 

ment, 

Rendez graces au ciel qui nous en a Thank heaven, who avenged us of him, 

venges, etc., 

because the participles informte, blame's, congue, vantee, venge's, pre- 
ceded by their direct complements les, nous, que, s\ nous, according 
to rule 777, must agree with those complements. 

?99 bis. Used as the complement of the adverbs combien, aidant, 
plus, the pronoun en, de cela, of it, forms with those adverbs the 
indirect complement of an active verb, or of a pronominal verb made 
from a transitive verb (77, 93). Used instead of de cela, aidant de 
cela, the complement combien en, aidant en, masculine singular, can- 
not change participles. Therefore, speaking of persons, we will say : 

Combien il en a trompi (d'hommes) ! How many he has deceived! 

Speaking of flowers or fruits : 

Autant il en a cueilli, autant il en a As many as he gathered, so many he gave 
donni, away. 

Racine was wrong in saying, with agreement in participles : 

Ah! malheureux, combien j'euai dej a Ah! wretch, how many have J lost 
perdus ! already ! 

Remark. — From this and number 777, it will be seen that adverbs 
of quantity have no influence on participles unless followed by 
substantives. Participles remain invariable whenever adverbs of 
quantity such as combien, que de, plus, etc., modify pronouns indirect 
objects representing substantives. 

Ex.: 

Combien de lines avez-vous hu'f How many books have you read* 

Combien en avez-vous hi? (speaking of books), How many have you read? 

According to the same principle, with invariability in the parti- 
ciple we must write : 

Ex.: 

Son supplice fit plus de proselytes que His execution made more proselyte* 
les predications n'en avaient/nr/7, than preaching had done before. 



SYNTAX OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 359 

In the preceding example que is a conjunction, and the participle 
fait has no direct complement.* 

SOO. (8.) Though participles of neuter verbs, coute', valu, when 
conjugated with avoir, to have, are sometimes susceptible of agree- 
ment. Such is the case when couter, valoir, are used actively or 
transitively (91). Couter is transitive and takes direct complements 
when it has the meaning of causer, exiger, to cause, to require; 
valoir takes them when it signifies to procure, to produce. 

Therefore we must say with agreement, participles (777) being 
preceded by direct objects : 

Ex.: 

Lespeines gwe cette affaire m'a coutees, The trouble that affair caused me. 

c. d d. m'a causees, 
Les honneurs que cette place m'a The honors that situation procured me; 

valus, c. d d. f m'a procures, 

because in such cases coilter, valoir, in their actual meaning, are 
preceded by the direct complement que, representing the substantives 
peines, honneurs (777). 

This rule is observed by all good writers. 

Ex.: 

Apres tous les ennuis que ce jour m'a After the many vexations experienced 

coutes, to-day, 

Ai-je pu rassurer mes esprits agites ? Have I been able to calm my agitated 

mind ? 

Vous n'avez pas oublie les soins que You have not forgotten the cares you 

vous m'avez coutes, caused me. 

Que d'eloges ne lui a pas valus sa con- How much praise his generous conduct 

duite genereuse, has won for him! 

Yet without change in participles we will say (780) : 

Ex.: 

Cette affaire m'a coute une peine in- That affair cost me incalculable pains. 

finie, 
Ce travail m'a valu une gratification, That loork has procured me a reward, 

because in these examples the direct complements une peine, une 
gratification, are placed after the participles coitU, valu (777) ; m\ 
standing for a moi, to me, indirect complement, has no action on 
participles. 

• See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 283-266, for false syntax on participles 
(655). 

31* 



360 GRAMMAR. 

Accordingly we will write, with agreement in participles : 
Ex.: 

Les cent francs que ce chien a cout6s, The hundred francs that dog cost, 

or without agreement (779) : 

Ex.: 
Les cent francs qua coute ce chien, The hundred francs that dog has cost. 

In the first example, the direct object ce chien precedes the parti- 
ciple coute'; in the last it follows it (777). 

Pesi is the participle of an active verb, differing from coute', valu* 

SOI. "When variable, past participles are subject in respect to 
agreement to the rules which govern verbs or adjectives (331, 681). 

1st. When preceded by two synonymous substantives, viz., con- 
veying the same idea. 

Ex.: 
Une bravoure, une valeur estimee, A bravery or valor appreciated. 

The agreement must take place with the last substantive, or word 
modified by the past participle (682, 773). 

2d. When preceded by two substantives connected by ou, or, in 
English. 

Ex.: 

Son imprudence ou sa legerete est His or her imprudence or giddiness is 

blamee, » blamed. 

Agreement with the substantive subject of the verb (683, 776). 

3d. When preceded by substantives forming a climax, or several 

words summed up in a single expression. 

Ex.: 

Un discours, une parole ^wel'on a pro- A speech, a word pronounced in anger. 
noncee dans la colere, 

Agreement with the last substantive parole, represented by que, 
direct complement of the participle prononce' (685, 777 . 

4th. When preceded by substantives, or expressions summing up 
the ideas enunciated in the words preceding that participle (686) : 

Ex. 
Protections, chances heureuses, tout Protections, lucky chances, every thing 
s'est reuni pour le favoriser, concurred to favor him. 

*See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 240-276, for erroneous theories on this 
part of French syntax. 



SYNTAX OP THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 361 

5th. When preceded by two substantives joined by the expressions 

comme, de m&me que, ainsi que, aussi bien que (561, 688). 

Ex. : 

C'est votre capacite aussi Men que It is your capacity as much as your zeal 
votre zele qu'on a recompensed, that they have rewarded. 

Agreement with the first substantive capacity represented by que, 
direct complement of the participle recompense* (777). 

6th. When preceded by a collective with which it is connected 
(276, 699). 

Ex.: 

Le grand nombre de fautes que j'ai The great number of mistakes I have 
remarque provient de votre inap- noticed are the result of your inat- 

plication, tention. 

Agreement with the general collective le grand nombre, represented 
by que, direct complement of the participle remarqu6 (698, 777). 

7th. When preceded by collectives connected with substantives 
complements of those collectives (698). 

Ex.: 

Un grand nombre de fautes se sont A great number of faults have crept into 
glissies dans votre lettre, your letter. 

Agreement with the substantive fautes, represented by the direct 
complement se, elles, preceding the participle gliss6 (698, 777). 

Subjects, we have already said (780), exert no influence on par- 
ticiples, combined with avoir. But if, by inversion (861), subjects 
are placed after direct objects or participles, they must agree with 
their direct object or complement (776). 

Ex.: 

Je l'&\ lue la lettre que j'ai recite de I read the letter I received from you. 
vous, 

Standing for: la lettre que j'ai regue de vous je Tai lue. 

Preceded by their direct complements que, V, or elle, represent- 
ing the substantive lettre, the two participles lu, regu, agree with 
those complements and take the feminine form. 

The first construction is the more emphatic, giving greater force 
to the idea of action expressed by the verb. 

Ex.: 

Nous Tavons vue la fille du pSchS, We have seen the daughter of Sin, ter- 

raffreuse et cruelle mort, nous rible and cruel Death, ice have seen 

l'avons vue venir dans nos ca- her come to our hovels, led thither 

banes, oil le crime V a con finite, bit Crime. 



362 GRAMMAR. 



QUE- 

V 

A quell— dub les panic: g -oyes fans 

auxiliaires? 774. Quelle est la premiere exception a c-: 

juelle en •; i 776. Quelle est la regie du par: 

]uand il est eonjugue avec rauxiliaire : '"" quelles sont 

celles du nienie participe quand il a avoir pour auxiliaire? 178, 

■mama ce que deinontrent les exeniples que vous nous avez 
donnas ~" Donnez-nous en d'autres ou Taccord n'ait pas lieu? 

quelle influence exereent les sujets sur les participes combines 
avec l'auxiliaire avoir f 7 SI. Les participes dee rat tm con- 

jugu£s avec avoir sont-ils variables ou invariable 782. Quelle est 
la regie qui r£git l'aceord des participes des verbes pronominaux ou 
reflechis? 783. Quelle est la premiere observation resultant de cette 
regie generate: " v -. Quelle est T exception a cette observation? 

] u' a vez -vous a dire sur V accord des partic:; ~erbes pro- 

nominaux formes de verbes neutres 78C ] neb :rois verbes 

neutres qui font exception a cette, regie generate! ~ v ~ 
la premiere remarque sur Tempi oi de certains pa:: asses? 

Quelle en est la seconde? " v Dibes-aoai uelle en est la 
troisieme, et que signifie I quand il represente un membre de phrase? 
790. Quelle est la quatrieme remarque; et qu'arrive-t-il quand un 
participe est immediatement suivi d'un inflnitif ? 791. Quelle obser- 
vation avez-vous a faire sur le participe la£ss€, quand D 
d'un infinitif? 792. Quel est le par:: 

793. Qu'arrive-t-il quelques : ?ouhif 

794. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur ces m^mes pai 796 
Quelle est la cinquieme remarque sur l'emploi du participe passe? 
796. Qu ? arrive-t-il quand un participe se trouve precede de deux 
complements directs? 797. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur les 
participes d& et donne*? 798. Quelles sont les deux significations du 
collectif general le peuf 799. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur 
le pronom en employe avec le participe ; 

i sont assujettis les participes passes des verbes neutres coQtcr 
et valoirf 801. Quelles sont . I participes 

passes quand ces participes sont variables? 

The foregoing questions contain a complete theory and practice on 

participles. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB, 



363 



CHAPTER TENTH. 
Adverbs (390). • 

802. Dessus, dessous, dedans, dehors, being adverbs, do not re- 
quire complements to complete their signification (391). 

Therefore, we should not say in French dessus la terre, dessous It 
del, but, using prepositions (414) : 

Sur la terre, sous le ciel, On earth, under heaven. 

Exceptions. — (1.) Unless used in opposition, in which case prepo- 
sitions are used also in English. 

Ex.: 

Les ennemis sont dedans et dehors la The enemies are inside and outside of 
ville, the town, or in and out, etc. 

(2.) When preceded by prepositions: 

Ex.: 

Par dessus les murs, 

On a tire cela de dessous la table, 

Au dehors de la maison (317), 



Above the walk. 

They took it from under the table. 

Outside of the house. 



Used substantively (1238) preceded by the forms of the deter- 
minate article or determinative adjective, they are governed by the 
rules which apply to common substantives. 

Ex.: 

Le dessus de cette table est de marbre, TJie top of that table is of marble, the 

le dessous est en bois de chene, under part is of oak. 

Le dedans de la maison est propre, The inside of the house is clean. 



803. 

Alentour, auparavant, davantage, 



Thereabout, before, some more. 



take no complements whatever. 

Consequently, such expressions as the following are not admissible : 



Alentour de, auparavant de, aupara- 
vant que, alentour de la table, 
auparavant departir, auparavant 
que vous partiez, il a davantage 
d' instruction, il en a davantage 
que vous, 



v £ 



Autour de, avant de, avant que, 
plus de, plus que, autour de 
la table, avant de partir, 
avant que vous partiez, il a 
plus destruction, il en a 
plus que vous. 



364 GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — "With or without the adverb davantage, we may say 
correctly : 

Ex.: 

Depuisque jeme suistrompe je crains Since I have been mistaken, I dread 

davantage de commettre des much more the commission of errors. 

erreurs, 

Je desire que vous soyez instruit, I wish you to be learned, but wish much 

mais je desire (davantage) que more that you should be good and 

vous soyez bon et honnete, honest. 

Vous voulez voyager, il serait bon You want to travel, it would be advisa- 

(auparavant) de prevenir vos ble beforehand to notify your parents 

parents: il serait utile (aupara- of your intention, and proper to con- 

vant) que vous les consultassiez, suit them. 

In the above sentences, que and de do not depend on the adverbs 
davantage, auparavant ; they connect the verbs craindre, de'sirer, il 
serait bon, il serait utile, with words which complete their significa- 
tion; — viz.: 

Je crains de commettre des erreurs,' I fear to commit errors; I wish you to 

je desire que vous soyez bon et be good and honest ; it would be ad- 

honnete: il serait bon de prevenir visable to notify your parents; it 

vos parents ; il serait utile que would be proper to consult them, 

vous les consultassiez, etc. 

804. Davantage must not be used with the signification of leplus. 
Instead of saying: 

De toutes les fleurs la rose est celle qui me plait davantage, 
say. 

De toutes les fleurs la rose est celle Among flowers, the rose pleases me most. 
qui me plait le plus (5±S), 



805. Plus tot, sooner, refers to time. Its counterpart is plus tard, 
later. 



Ex.: 

H partira plus tot, He will set out sooner. 

Xous arriverons plus tard, We will arrive later. 

Used in connection with persons, plutot conveys the idea of pre- 
ference, answering to rather than, in English. 

Ex.: 

Le travail, aux hommes necessaire, Labor, needful to men, constitutes their 
fait leur felicite plutot que leur happiness rather than their misery. 

misere, 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 365 

806. Si, aussi, are used with adjectives, participles, or adverbs in 
order to modify them. They correspond to so, as, in English. 

Ex. : 

Si modeste, si devoue, si eloquemment, So modest, so devoted, so eloquently. 
Aussi modeste, aussi devoue, aussi As modest, as devoted, etc. 
Sloiiueniment, 

Tant, aidant, are used to modify substantives or verbs, answering 
to so much, as much, in English. 

Ex.: 

Tant d* eloquence,- autant de prejugSs, So much eloquence, so many prejudices, 

tant de talents, so much talent. 

II travaille tant; autant estime que He works so much ; as much esteemed 

cheri, as cherished. 

The expression aussi estime' que cMri is elliptical, the subject and 
verb being understood. It stands for: 

II est autant estime qu'il est autant He is as much esteemed as he is che- 
cheri, rished. 

807. Remark. — Si cannot modify adverbial expressions. We 
must not say: 

H 6tait si en peine, si en fatigue, si en "} ( si fort en peine, tellement fatigu£, 
colere, si a l'aise, il est venu si a > <© < si bien a 1'aise, si bien a pro- 

propos, J ( pos. 



In those cases prepositions are used also in English. 

Ex. : 

II 6tait si fort en peine, si bien d So much in trouble, so much at ease. 1 
Taise, 

SOS. Aussi, autant, are used in comparisons, answering to as, as 
much, in English. 

Ex.: 

C£sar etait aussi eloquent que brave: Cossarwas as eloquent as brave/ he was 
on l'admirait autant qu'on le as much admired as dreaded. 

craignait, 

Si, tant, denote extent. They correspond to so, so much. 

Ex.: 

H est si faible, il a tant fatigue, He is so weak, he has undergone so 

much fatigue. 

809. Si, tant, with a negation, may be used for aussi, autant, 
answering to so or so much. 



366 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

II n'est pas si riche que vous, He is not so rich as you. 

Rien ne m'a tant fache que cette nou- Nothing hurt me so much as that news. 
velle (401), 

810. Remark. — Que connects the two terms in comparisons, when 
the qualities or quantities mentioned in the first term are not ex- 
pressed in the second (410) : 

Ex.: 

Aussi sage que sa soeur, As wise as her sister. 

Moins bonne que son frere, Less good than her brother, 

or when the qualities (not quantities) expressed in the first term are 
compared with others expressed in the second (410). 

Ex.: 

Elle est plus sage que belle (485), She is more wise than handsome. 

Remark. — To use comme instead of the conjunction que would be 
a great inaccuracy. 

Do not say: 

Aussi sage comme son frere ; moins bonne comme sa soeur. 

811. De suite, successively, without interruption, answers to to- 
gether. ■ 

Ex. 

II ne saurait dire deux mots de suite, He cannot speak two words together. 

Tout-de-suite, instantly, at once, in English, takes indirect objects 
(706), which belong properly to verbs preceding that expression, as 
shown in the following examples. 

Ex.: 

II faut que les enfants obeissent tout- Children must at once obey their parents. 

de-suite d leurs parents, 

Que ces enfants desobeissants rentrent Let those disobedient children come in- 

tout-de-suite dans la maison, stantly into the house. 

A leurs parents, dans la maison, are here the complements of obetr, 
rentrer (706). 
Without complements of verbs we would say (802) : 

Ex.: 

II faut que les enfants obeissent tout- Children must obey at once. 
de-suite, 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 367 

Sur-le-champ, immediately, may take the place of tout-de-suite 
(450). 

Bient6t, tout-a-Fheure, answering to soon, by-anoVby, denote a short 
interval, a proximate future. 

Ex.: 
Venez bientot, Come soon. 

Tout-a-1'heure nous allonsyenir (726), We will soon come, or by-and-by tee 
standing for tout a l'heure nous will come, 

viendrons, 

A cette heure answers to now, actually, at this time; sur l'heure, 
to within an hour; a la minute, to in a minute, instantly. 

Tantot, answering to by-and-by, indicates also a proximate future. 
"When used in opposition in two propositions, it corresponds to some- 
times, at other times, in English. 

Ex.: 

Tant&t il pleure, tantOt il rit, Sometimes he cries, at other times he 

laughs. 

Tant-mieux, tant-pis, are adverbial expressions corresponding with 
so much the better, so much the worse (408). Pis is a contraction of 
pire, — worse, in English. Pis may follow tant ; pire cannot do so 
(987). 

Ceci est pis que cela, This is icorse than that. 

Tant-pis pour vous, So much the icorse for you. 

812. Tout-a-coup, suddenly; tout-a~la-fois, all at once. 
Ex.: 

Cette maison est tomb£e tout-a-coup, That house fell suddenly. 

Ce fruit a muri tout-a-la-fois, That fruit ripened all at once. 

Tout-d'un-coup answers to at one stroke. 

Ex.: 

II gagna mille Sous tout-d'un-coup, He gained a thousand crowns at one 

stroke. 

813. Tres, very, modifies adjectives expressing a quality in sub- 
stantives, or adverbs formed of those adjectives. 

Ex. : 

Cet homme est tres-sage, That man is very wise. 

II agit tres-sagement, He acts very wisely. 

Bien, extrdmement, are used before indeterminate nouns, expressing 

state or situation in the subject; they combine idiomatically with 

avoir. 

32 



368 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

J'ai bien faim, nous avons bien chaud, / am very hungry, we are very warm. 

JT'ai extreniement faim, nous arons / am extremely hungry, ice are ex- 
extreinement chaud, tremely warm. 

Therefore, it is incorrect to say, with common substantives, j'ai 
tres-faim, instead of fai bien faim. 

Remark. — Tr&s must be always connected by a hyphen with the 
word which it modifies (447). Bien does not require the use of the 
hyphen. 

Speaking of the use of tr&s, No'el and ChapsaPs Grammar says, 
with academical authority, page 157: 

Before nouns, bien, extremement, are used. Hence, 
*Pai trls-faim, f ai tres-soif, should not be used for fai bien faim, fai bien soif* 

814. We cannot say : 

C'est ici oil je demeure, c'est la oit je vais. 

In these sentences, two adverbs express the same circumstance 

and modify the same verb. 

This will be made obvious by proceeding as we have done in 

No. 705. 

Je demeure ici oh, je demeure la oil (432). 

The adverb oil, it is evident, must be dropped and replaced by the 
conjunction que, not necessarily expressed in English. 
Ex. : 

C'est ici que je demeure, It is here I live. 

C'est la que je vais, It is there I go. 

Yet, to add strength to the expression, we might say with pleonasm 

(857): 

Ici, oil depuis mon arrived je n'ai Here, where I have experienced sorrow 
6prouve que douleur! since my arrival! 

814 bis. Repetition of certain Adverbs. 

Some adverbs of quantity are repeated before the nouns which 
they modify. 

Ex.: 
Plus de pain, plus de viande, plus de More bread, more meat, more wine, 

vin, 
Moins de gloire, moins d'honneurs, Less glory, fewer honors, etc. 

etc., 
Beaucoup d'hommes, beaucoup d'en- Many men, many children. 
facts, 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 369 



Uses of the Negation in French. 

815. Negations, in French, are expressed by ne, ne pas, ne point, 
no, not, in English. 

Ex.: 

Je n'ose pas, je n'ose point, I do not dare, I am not daring. 

Ne is the weakest negation, ne point the strongest. 

Remark. — Standing before the negative ne, quoique conjunction 
answers to but preceded by though or although, in English (667 bis). 

Ex.: 

Quoique je n'eusse qu'un miuce re- Though I had but a slender income, I 
venu, je n'etais pas moins heureux icas not the less happy in my family. 

en menage, 

Que following ne renders the use of pas unnecessary. 

Ex.: 

Je ne m'associe qu'avec les honnetes- I associate only with honest people. 
gens, 

Ne preceding que, in French, answers to but, only, in English. 

Ex.: 

Nous n'avons qu'une esperance, We have but one hope. 

lis n'avaient qu'un fils, They had only one son. 

Que preceding ne answers to why? (747, 836 bis). It is used also 
instead of pourquoi in interrogations. 

Ex.: 

Que ne veniez-vous plus t6t ? Why did you come so late f 

This idiomatic form in French answers exactly to the affirmative 
in English. 

816. The conjunctive expressions 

A moins que, de peur que, de crainte Unless, for fear, lest, more than, etc.. 
que, si, plus que, etc., 

when occurring with the verb empecher, to prevent, always require 
the negation ne used idiomatically, — viz., without negative meaning. 



370 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

A moins que vous ne lui parliez, Unless you speak to him 

De peur qu'on ne vous trompe. For fear (or lest) they deceive you. 

La pluie empecha qu'on ne se pronienat Bain prevented walking in the gardens. 

dans les jardins, 

Lesfautes d'Horuere n'ont pas empeche" Homer* 8 imperfections did not prevent 

qu'il ne fut sublime, him from being sublime. 

817. Used idiomatically after 

Autre, autrement, plus, mieux, moins, Other, otherwise, more, best, less, better, 
meilleur, aussi bien, plutot, etc., as well, rather, etc., 

with the verbs 

Craindre, avoir peur, trembler, appre- To fear, to be afraid, to tremble, to 
hender, etc., apprehend, 

ne has no negative meaning. 
Ex.: 

II est tout autre qu'il n'etait, He is different from what he was. 

H parle autrement qu'il n'agit, Me speaks otherwise than he acts. 

II est plus modeste qu'il ne parait, He is more modest than he appears. 

Je crains qu'il ne vienne, I fear that he icill come. 

S17 bis. Exception. — 'Whenever in the principal proposition verbs 
are accompanied by negations, ne must be dropped in the incidental 

determinative (481). 

Ex.: 

H ne parle pas autrement qu'il agit, He does not speak otherwise than he 

acts. 
II n'est pas plus modeste qu'il le He is not more modest than he appears. 

parait. 
Je ne crains pas qu'il vienne, I do not fear that he icill come. 

SIS. Remark. — When the accomplishment of the action expressed 
by verbs in the second proposition is desired, ne, pas, are used after 
trembler, appreliender, craindre^ avoir peur, de crainte que, de peur 
que. The meaning in those cases is negative in both languages. 

Ex.: 

Je crains qu'il ne r^ussisse pas, I fear that he will not succeed. 

J ? ai peur qu'il ne soit pas arrive, I am afraid that he has not arrived. 

SIS Lis. When used negatively, nier, disconvenir, de'sespe'rer, douter t 
are followed by ne. pas. 



SYNTAX OP THE ADVERB. 371 



Ex.: 



Je ne nie pas, je ne doute pas que cela / neither deny nor doubt that it is so. 
ne soit, 

Yet without negations we might say: 

Je nie, je doute que cela soit, / deny, I doubt that it is so, 
because the verbs nier, doute}' are here used affirmatively. 

819. The active or transitive verb d&fendre, and the conjunctive 
expressions avant que, sans que, are never followed by ne, pas, but 
may be preceded by them when used negatively. 

Ex.: 

Avant qu'il fasse froid, Before cold begins. 

J'ai dSfendu que vous fissiez cette I forbade you to do that. 

chose, 

Je n'ai pas defendu que vous le fissiez, I did not forbid you to do it, etc. 

etc., 

820* Point expresses negation more forcibly than pas, not. There- 
fore: 

(1.) Point is used with permanent or customary things; pas with 
accidental or transitory. 

Ex.: 

II ne lit point, He never reads. 

II ne lit pas, He (at this moment) does not read. 

821* (2.) With adverbs of comparison, as si, aussi, autant, tant, 
plus moins, or with numeral adjectives (360), pas, not, is preferable 
to point. 

Ex.: 

II n'est pas aussi habile, He is not so expert. 

Vous n'etes pas moins prudents, You are not less prudent. 

II ne possdde pas un ami, He does not possess a friend. 

Vous n'avez pas lu dix pages, You have not read ten pages. 

Pas and point, in interrogative propositions, do not differ in the 
same degree as in affirmative propositions. 

Ex.: 

N'avez-vous point dit cela? Did you say so? or,'have you said sot 

implies doubt in the mind of the querist. In that case, no negative 
is expressed in English. 

N'avez-vous pas dit cela? Bid you not say so f 

82* 



372 GRAMMAR. 

on the contrary, expresses positive knowledge on the part of the 
querist. 
Ex.: 

Tout le monde rit; n'ai-je pas dit Everybody is laughing : have I not said 

quelque sottise? something foolish ? 

Pourquoi me blamez-vous ; n'ai-je pas Why do you blame me? have I not told 

dit la verite ? the truth ? 

Ne, pas, answering to not, in interrogations, may be connected with 
nouns of a partitive meaning (538). The meaning is then emphati- 
cally affirmative. 

Ex.: 

JV'ai-je^as de Targent? answering to Have /not some money? 

821 bis. Pas, point, are dropped: 

(1.) When the verbs oser, pouvoir, cesser, savoir, stand alone or are 
followed by infinitives. 

Ex.: 

Je n'ose, je ne puis, je ne cesse, je ne / do not dare, I cannot, I do not cease, 
puis rSpondre, I cannot answer. 

Je ne puis marcher, je ne cesse de I cannot walk, I do not cease working, 
travailler, etc., etc. 

In such cases, however, the dropping of pas or point is optional. 
For we might say : 

Je ne puis pas marcher, je ne cesse point de travailler, je ne puis^a* venir. 

(2.) Expressions of a negative meaning, such as: 

Jamais, nul, personne, aucun, nulle- Never, none, nobody, not one, not at 
ment, rien (166), all, nothing, 

with ni repeated ; or que, corresponding to seulement, only, necessi- 
tate the dropping of pas, point. 
Ex.: 

Un mechant ne sait jamais pardonner, A wicked man never forgives. 

II ne faut rien dire qui puisse attaquer We must never say any thing which might 

la reputation d'un homme de blast the reputation of an honest 

bien, , man. . 

Titus ne passait aucun jour sans faire Titus never passed a day without per- 

une bonne action, forming a good deed. 

Je ne vois personne qui ne vous loue, / see no one icho does not praise you 

(672, 764). 

II n'a ni talent ni bonne volont^, He has neither talents nor good will. 

I/honnete homme ne connait que ses An honest man knows only his duty. 

devoirs, v 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 373 

Remark. — With verbs in the subjunctive mode governed by §tre, 
to be, conjugated unipersonally and preceded by ce (640), ne, pas, 
are used with an affirmative meaning. 

Ce n'est pas que nous n'eussions nos poinds et nos chagrins comme les 
autres, 

answering to : 

Ex.: • 

Nous avions aussi comme les autres Like everybody else, we had our troubles 
nos peines et nos chagrins, and crosses. 

The first construction is the more elegant, and gives force and 
harmony to the thought. Negations in French are often used to 
strengthen affirmations (1178 bis). 

N'avez vous pas dit cela? meaning: You did say so. 

As a proof that adverbs of quantity exert no influence over par- 
ticiples combined with &re, either with or without those adverbs, ac- 
cording to rule 776, we subjoin the following sentences: 

Beaucoup de prisonniers se sont Des prisonniers se sont echappgs (776, 

echappes, - 786). 

Jamais tant de beaute fut-elle vue Tant de beaute fut-elle vue dans une 

dans une femme? femme ? 

For false theories, see Pujol and Van Norman, pp. 240-269. 



QUESTIONS. 

802, Comment emploie-t-on les adverbes en Francais? 803. Don- 
nez-nous des exemples de Pemploi des adverbes alentour, auparavant, 
davantage, etc.? 804. Peut-on employer davantage pour le plus? 805. 
A quoi l'adverbe plutot a-t-il rapport? 806. Comment emploie-t-on 
si et aussi? 807. Si peut-il modifier les expressions adverbiales? 
808. Qu'expriment les adverbes aussi, autant? 809. Dans quel cas 
peut-on employer les adverbes si, tant, pour aussi, autant? 810. 
Quand est-ce que les termes d'une comparaison sont reunis par que 
ou par que de? 811. Qu'exprime Tadverbe de suite? 812. Quelle 
difference etablissez-vous entre tout-d-coup et tout-d'un-coup? 813. 
Quels sont les mots que modifie Tadverbe Ms? 814. Peut-on em- 
ployer les adverbes ici, la, conjointement avec Padverbe oil? 815. 
Quelles sont les negations que Ton emploie en Francois? 816. 
Quelles sont les locutions conjonctives qui reclament la negation ne? 



374 GRAMMAR. 

817. Quels sont les adverbes et les verbes qui r£clament aussi son 
emploi? S17 bis. Quelle est ^exception a cet emploi? 818. Quelle 
est la remarque a faire sur certains verbes, et sur quelques locutions 
adverbiales quand on emploie ne, pas, au lieu de ne? 818 bis. Quels 
sont les verbes qui n'emploient que ne, et qui en certains cas se dis- 
pensent de cette negation? 819. Quelles sont les locutions conjonc- 
tives et le verbe qui rejettent cette negation? 820. Quelle est la 
negation franchise la plus 6nergique? 821. Dans quel cas doit-on 
employer pas de preference k point f 821 bis. Dans quel cas n'em- 
ploie-t-on ni Fune ni 1* autre de ces negations? 



CHAPTER ELEVENTH. 

Prepositions (413). 



822. Au-travers, through, requires the preposition de. A-travers 

takes direct objects (69, 70). 

Ex. : 

Au-travers d'un buisson, Through a bush. 

A-travers les champs, Through the fields. 

823. Pres de, near, by, indicates, generally, proximity or neigh- 
borhood. 

Ex.: 

II demeure pres de i'Sglise, pres do. He lives near the church, by the theatre. 
theatre, 

Aupres de, near by, close to, to the idea of proximity adds those of 
assiduity and sentiment. 

Ex.: 

Cet enfant n'est heureux qu'aupres de That child is only happy when close to 
sa mere, his mother. 

Used with verbs expressing motion or issue, the preposition de 

answers to from, in English. 

Ex.: 

Je viens de France, d'AmSrique, / come from France, from America 

d'Angleterre, from England. 

H descend d'une famille noble. He descends from a noble family. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 375 

Having as complement certain names of countries used always 
deter minately, when those nouns are masculine venir requires the 
contractions du, des, answering to from (316) ; and the combinations 
de V , de la, when feminine or masculine beginning with a vowel or 
h mute. 

Nous venons dm Mexique, du Thibet, We come from Mexico, from TJtibet. 

Yous arrivez du Bengale, You come from Bengal. 

II arrive de /'Inde, >u, des Indes- He comes from India, or, from the 
orientales, de TArchipel, East Indies, from the Archipelago. 

Combined or blended with the determinate article, de answers to 

quelqae, — in English some (537). 

J'ai du pain, de Sargent, de la viande, / have some bread, money, meat, and 
des habits, clothing. 

Before words of a partitive meaning preceded by qualifying ad- 
jectives, de answers to quelque, un peu, some, in English. 
Ex.: 

J'ai de bon pain, / have some good bread. 

The same preposition is also used before determinate or indeter- 
minate nouns. 

Ex.: 
Je parle eHiommes et de femnxes, I speak of men and women. 

Nous parlions de rhomme et de la We speak of the 7nan and poor woman, 
f6mme pauvre, 

or before complements of active verbs conjugated negatively (538) 
indeterminately (1178 bis): 

Nous n'avons pas cZ'argent, We have no money. 

Vous ne mangez pas de viande, You do not eat any meat. 

824. Dans, in, is connected with common substantives used deter- 
minately, or with proper nouns. 

Ex.:' 

Dans le monde, dans le pays, dans In the world, in the country, in that 

cette ville, dans sa maison, dan3 town, in his or her house, in their 

leurnavire, dans FAmerique, dans ship, in America, in Paris, in Nexo 

Paris, dans New-York, dans un York, in a book, in a year. 
livre, dans un an, 

825. With the same extension of meaning, en, in, on the contrary, 
is used before indeterminate substantives unless standing for dans or 
pendant* 

* See FasquehVs Method, pp. 455-2 ; Pujol and Van Norman, pp. 254- 
320. 



376 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

En Am6rique, en ville, en prison, In America, in town, in jail. 

En Tan huit cent de notre ere, In the year eight hundred of our era. 

En oette circonstance; en sa presence, In that case; in his presence. 

We might say, in the last two examples, pendant Van huit cent, 
etc., dans cette circonstance, dans sa presence. 

826. Entre, au milieu de, answers to between. On that account, 
says the French Academy, it is used generally to connect two persons 
or objects (438-3). 

Ex.: 

II Stait entre nous deux, He stood between us. 

Entre les deux poles, Between the two poles. 

Entre nous, entre eux, entre quatre Between us, between them, between four 
murs, walls. 

Enfin answers to at last, in reference to periods or epochs of time, 
or to what is said. 

Ex.: 

Apres une marche longue et penible, After a long and painful walk, we 

enfin arrivames-nous a la maison, arrived at last at our house. 

Ayant passe une vie agitee et pleine Having spent a life of agitation and 

de degout, il s'endormit enfin sorrows, he at last fell asleep in the 

dans le sein de Dieu, bosom of God. 

Referring to persons or things, environ answers to about, in English. 
A pen pr£s, in French, may take its place. 

Ex.: 

Nous etions trente ou quarante horn- We were about thirty or forty persons. 

mes (865), 
II y avait environ cent moutons, There were about one hundred sheep. 

Referring to distance, environ may be preceded or followed by d. 

Ex.: 

Nous etions d environ vingt milles de We were about twenty miles from the 

la ville, town. 

Nous etions environ d vingt milles de We were at a distance of about twenty 

distance, miles. 

Nous ne sommes qu'cfc environ une We are about a league from there. 

lieue de la, 

826 bis. Parmi, answering to among, in the midst of, not so pre- 
cise in its signification as entre, is used with indefinite plurals mean- 
ing more than two, three, or with collective nouns (276). 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 377 



Ex. 



Parmi les honnStes-gens, parmi eux, Among honest people, among them, 
parmi le peuple, parmi la mul- among people, among the crowd. 

titude, 

. Vis-a-vis de, answering to opposite, expresses opposition of places. 
With reference to persons it must not be confounded with a Tegard 
de, envers, in regard, towards. 

Vis-a-vis de, en face, pres, hors, answer to opposite, facing, near, 
out: they take in French the preposition de, which is not needed in 
English with the first two prepositions. 

Ex.: 

Vis-a-vis de Tile de TenSdos, Opposite the island of Tentdos. 
Pres du mont Athos, Near Mount Athos. 

Hors des rangs ennemis, Out of the enemy's ranks. 

The preposition de may be dropped in familiar style : 

Ex.: 

II loge pr&s l'arsSnal, He lives near the arsenal. 

Vis-a-vis la nouvelle rue, Opposite the new street. 

Pres Teglise, pres le theatre, Near the church, by the theatre. 

The preposition par may be used with determinate or indetermi' 
nate substantives (307). 

Ex.: 

Par force, par faiblesse, par douceur, By force, by weakness, by kindness. 
Par la force, par cette adresse, par sa By the strength, by that skill, by his 
douceur, kindness. 

The idiomatic expression par la raison que, answers to because, a$ 
sure, in English (713). 

Before indeterminate nouns, par corresponds with through, in 
English. 

Ex.: 

Par haine par vengeance ils Font Through hatred and revenge they 

puni, punished him. 

Par monts par vaux ils sont arrives Through mountains and dales they 

ici, arrived here. 

Optional in English, the repetition of par in such cases is indis- 
pensable in French. 

827. Entre is sometimes used for parmi, among, in English. 



378 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

II fut trouve* entre les inorts, He was found among the dead. 

Entre les merveilles de la nature il Among the wonders of nature none de- 
ntil est pas de plus admirable, serves more admiration. 

Parmi is never used for entre : therefore we must not say : 

Parmi les deux freres, Among the two brothers. 

Parmi les trois Horaces, Among the three Horatii 

Two, three, being determinate numbers, we must in the two lan- 
guages say : 
Ex.: 

Entre les deux freres, Between the two brothers. 

Entre les trois Horaces, Between the three Horatii 

S2S. Jusque, even, as far as, is placed before consonants. 

Ex.: 

Jusque sur les autels, Even on the altars. 

Jusque dans les nuages, As high as the clouds. 

Jusque, jusques, are used also before vowels, the first principally 

with elision of the final e. 

Ex.: 

Jusqu'au fond du cceur, To the bottom of the heart. 

Jusques a la fin du monde, ou jusqu'a Till the end of the world. 

la fin, etc., 

Jusques a quand, ou jusqu'jl quand, Till when. 

In such cases, s is added for euphony. According to academical 
authority, with equal propriety we may say : 
Ex.: 

Jusqu'aujourd , hui,oujusquesaujou^d , - Till this day. 

hui, 
Jusqu'ou allez-vous? ou jusques oil How far do you go f 

allez-vous ? 

829. Yoici — literally see this — in sentences refers to what follows ; 
voila — see that — to what precedes. 

Ex.: 

Voici trois m£decins qui ne se trom- These are three infallible physicians, 
pent pas, gaite, doux exercice et cheerfulness, light exercise, and 

modeste repas, moderate meals. 

When referring to abstract objects, or when pointing to substantial 
ones, those compound words answer to this is, that is (417), not 
always expressed in English sentences. 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 379 



Ex.: 



La droiture du coeur, la verite, Pinno- Rectitude of heart, truth, innocence, are 

cence, voila la veritable gran- true greatness. 

deur, 

Voici votre pere, voila votre mere, This is your father, that is your mother. 

Referring to places occupied by persons or things, the expressions : 
here is, there is, replace them (416). 

Ex.: 
La est votre pere, la est votre mere, Here is your father, there is your mother* 



Complements of Prepositions and Prepositive Expressions 
(414, 418). 

830. Two prepositions may have the same complement. Thus, 
we may say: 

Ex.: 

H a parle pour et contre vous, ou He spoke for and against you, or 

II a parle pour vous et contre vous, He spoke for you and against you. 

831. Two prepositive expressions may have also a single com- 
plement, provided each requires the same preposition. Thus, we 
may say : 

Ex.: 

Prea et autour de la ville, Near and about town, 

because prhs and autour require the same preposition de ; but we 
Gould not use such an expression as this : a cause et par rapport & 
vous; d cause requiring the preposition a, par rapport the prepo- 
sition de. 

832* Prepositions or prepositive expressions cannot adopt the 
same complement. Each must have the complement it needs. 
Therefore we should not say : 

Juger suivant et conformement aux lois (392), 

instead of: 

Ex.: 

Juger suivant les lois et conformement To judge according to the laws, and 
a ce qu'elles prescrivent, conformably with their prescrip- 

tions. 
33 



380 



GRAMMAR. 



Kepetition of Prepositions in French. 



833. A, de, en, are always repeated before each complement. 

Ex.: 

II dut sa vie d la clSmence et d la 
magnaniniite du vainqueur, 

II est doux de servir sa patrie et de 
contribuer a sa gloire, 

On trouve les memes prejuges en 
Europe, en Asie, en Afrique, et 
jusqu'en Amerique, 

Allez-vous d Paris, d Lyon, ou d Mar- 
seille ? 



He owed his life to the clemency and 
magnanimity of the victor. 

It is sweet to serve our country and be 
the promoters of its glory. 

The same prejudices are found in Eu- 
rope,' in Asia, in Africa, even in 
America. 

Are you going to Paris, to Lyons, or to 
Marseilles ? 



834* Whenever their complements have different significations, 
contrary to English practice, prepositions are obligatorily repeated 
in French. 

Ex.: 

Dans la paix et dans la guerre, 
Sur terre, sur mer, 
Etre en liberte, etre en prison, 
Par la force et par l'adresse, 
Avec courage, avec humanity, 
Sans vigueur et sans vie, 



In peace and war. 
On land or sea. 
To be free or to be in jail. 
By force and cunning. 
With courage and humane feelings. 
Without force and life. 



"When complements are synonymous expressions, they are not 
repeated (551). 



Ex.: 

Dans la mollesse et Toisivete, 
Par la force et la violence, 
Avec courage et intrepidite, 



In indolence and idleness. 
By force and violence. 
With courage and valor. 



835. Connecting two substantives representing the same thing, 
whatever the prepositions may be, monosyllabic or polysyllabic, they 
must not be repeated. In this they follow the rules of the determi- 
nate article (551, 609). 

Ex.: 

Cette citation appartient a Paul et 

Virginie, 
La Fontaine, dans sa fable de Tane et 

le chien, 



That quotation is from Paul and Vir- 
ginia. 

La Fontaine,in his fable of the ass and 
the dog. 



These expressions are elliptical, answering to : 

Cette citation appartient a (le roman intitule) Paul et Virginie; 
La Fontaine, dans sa fable (ayant titre) de Fane et le chien (854). 

Unity or plurality in the thought is the basis of this principle of 
general grammar. Au dehors means outside; en dehors, besides. 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 381 

QUESTIONS. 

822. Faites-nous connaitre Pemploi des propositions d travers et 
aitrtravers? 823. Qu'indique prhs de et aapres de? 824. Comment 
emploie-t-on dans? 825. Dans quel cas faut-il employer la preposition 
en? 826. Quelle est la signification d J entre? 826 bis. Comment 
emploie-t-on parmi, et qui a-t-il a faire remarquer sur Pemploi de 
vis-drvis? 827. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on entre pour parmi? 828. 
Indiquez-nous Temploi dejusque ? 829. Quelle distinction faites-vous 
sur Pemploi de void et de voild? 830. Deux propositions peuvent- 
elles avoir un seul et m§me complement? 831. En est-il de m§me 
pour les locutions prOpositives, et peuvent-elles aussi avoir le mSme 
complement ? 832. Une proposition et une locution prepositive peu- 
vent-elles entre elles deux ri avoir qu'un seul et meme complement? 

833. Dans quels cas repete-t-on les propositions monosyllabiques? 

834. Dans quel autre faut-il obligatoirement les rOpOter ? 835. Quel 
est le cas ou les propositions monosyllabiques ne doivent pas se 
rOpOter ? 

Given in French by the pupils, the answers to the above questions will be 
for them a preparatory step for practice in conversation. The study of forms 
or simple hints on conversation will always prove a failure, — being grounded 
on expressions set in the memory in regular order, which never occurs in 
real conversation. Teach the mind first, and the organs of speech will soon 
obey that faculty. (See Pujol and Van Norman, p. 277, New System for 
Teaching Conversation.) 

Teaching the general principles of the French language, our system does 
not require the memorizing of forms of expressions, which, uselessly burdening 
the memory, embarrass rather than help the learner. 



CHAPTER TWELFTH. 

Conjunction (419). 

836* Et, ni, add to the thought ; et, and, adds affirmatively, ni, 
nor, negatively. 

836 bis. Consequently, et, and, is used in French (894) : 
1st. To unite incidental propositions depending on incidental affir- 
mative (453, 4ft, 477). 



382 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

II croit que la terre est une planete, et He believes the earth to be a planet, 
(478) ^u'elle tourne autour du turning round the sun. 

soleil, 

2d. To unite the same parts in propositions when affirmative 
(894), answering to and in English (942). 

Ex.: 

II cultive les lettres et les sciences, He cultivates literature and sciences. 

Cet enfant est instruit et modeste, That child is learned and modest, 

II agit lentement et prudemment, He acts slowly and prudently. 

&3K. Ni, answering to nor, is used : 

1st. To connect incidental propositions depending on principal 

negative. 

Ex.: 

II ne croit pas que la terre soit une He does not believe the earth to be round, 
planete, ni (478) qu'elle tourne nor (that) it turns round the sun. 

autour du soleil, 

2d. To unite the same parts in propositions when those are nega- 
tive. 
Ex.: 

II ne cultive pas les lettres ni les He does not cultivate literature or 

sciences, sciences. 

H w'agit pas lentement, ni prudem- He does not act slowly or prudently. 

ment, 

Cet enfant n'est pas instruit ni modeste, That child is neither learned nor modest. 

838. Kemark. — It is better to drop the negations ne, pas, in those 
cases, and repeat the conjunction ni. 

. Ex.: 

II ne cultive ni les lettres, ni les sciences, ") For erroneous classification of 
II n'agit ni lentement ni prudemment, > this word, see Pujol and Van 

Cet enfant n'est ni instruit ni modeste. J Norman, p. 244-277. 

Ni is used before determinate or indeterminate substantives, ob- 
jects of verbs conjugated negatively. Therefore such substantives 
cannot have a partitive meaning.* 

Determinate negative sense (553) : 

Je n'ai ni Parbre ni le jardin, / have neither the tree nor the garden. 

Indeterminate : 
Je n'ai ni arbres ni jardins, / have neither trees nor gardens. 

• Fasquelle's Method, p. 40-3. 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 383 

839. Et, and, precedes sans ; ni takes the place of that preposi- 
tion repeated in English, or replaced by or. 

Ex.: 

Sans joie et sans murmure elle semble Without joy or complaint she appears 

obeir, to obey. 

Sans crainte ni pudeur, sans force ni Without fear or shame, without power 

vertu, or virtue. 

Placed at the beginning of sentences, the adverbs plus, mieux, 
moins, autant, must not be joined by the conjunction et, and. 

Ex.: 
Plus on lit Racine plus on Tadmire, The more we read Racine, the more we 

admire him. 

Et plus on V admire would be incorrect, because to mark the con- 
nection of those two propositions it is not necessary to unite them by 
means of the conjunction et. They correspond with : 

On admire d'autant plus Racine qu'on le lit plus. 

Those propositions being connected by que, there is no need of 
the other conjunction (485). 

839 bis. Remark. — In cases like the preceding, the forms of the 
determinate article the, used in English, are repeated before each 
adverb. 

840. Parce que, in two words, means attendu que, because. 
Ex.: 

Parce qu'elle meurt, faut-il que vous Because she dies, must you die also ? 
mouriez ? 

841. Par ce que, in three words, answers to par la chose que, or 
par les choses que, by, through, in English. 

Ex.: 

Par ce qu'on voit tous le jours, il est Through what we see every day, we may 
facile de comprendre combien le easily perceive how pernicious is 

mauvais exemple est pernicieux, bad example. 

Que preceding ne, answers to why, used in interrogative cases. 
Ex.: 
Que ne le faisiez-vous plus tSt ? Why have you not done it sooner ? 

Que interrogative placed before verbs, answers to what f 
Ex.: 
Que dites-vous ? que fait-il ? What do you say ? what is he doing t 

33* 



384 GRAMMAR. 

Que de, answers to combien de, how much, how many? Placed 
before substantives, it is a direct object having influence on par- 
ticiples conjugated with avoir (777). 

Ex.: 

Que de graces nous avons rendues a Mow many thanks we have rendered to 
Dieu, qui nous a tire de ce grand God, who has delivered us from that 

danger, imminent danger ! 

Que d'argent nousleur devons encore, How much money we yet owe them ! 

842. Quoique, in a single word, answers to bien que, although or 
though (667 bis). 

Ex.: 

Quoique vous soyez instruit, soyez mo- Though learned, he modesty 
deste, 

answering to: soyez modeste quoique instruit (747). 

Quoi, used determinately, is a common substantive, answering to 
what one possesses (667 bis). It is used also as an indefinite pro- 
noun or as an exclamation, answering to the thing which, or why ? 

843. Quoi que in two words means quelque chose que, whatever 
(667 bis), any thing, 

Ex.: 

Quoi que vous lui disiez, il ne vous Whatever you may tell him, he does not 
6coute pas, listen to you. 

844. Quand, conjunction, signifies at what time, when. 

Ex.: 

Venez quand vous aurez fini, Come when you have done. 

Quand partirez-vous ? When will you go ? or, at ichat time will 

you go f 

845. Quant, preposition, answers to as for, as to, followed always 
by the preposition a in French, or the contracted article au (315), 
answering to to in English. 

Ex.: 

Quant a cette affaire, je m'en inquiete As to that affair, I care little about it. 

pen, 
Quant au reste, soyez tranquille, As to the rest, be easy. 

Pour answers to the same expression without need of any prepo- 
sitions. 

Ex.: 

Pour moi cette affaire m'inqui&te pen, That affair troubles me very little. 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 385 

Bien que may answer to quoique, in English though. 

Ex.: 
Bien que malheureux, il est honnete, Though unfortunate, he is honest. 

846. A cause que, durant que, malgri que, are now obsolete. 



A cause que, ^ ( Parce que, Because. 

Durant que, > are replaced by I Pendant que, During. 

Malgre que, J (. Quoique, Though. 



847. The conjunction que does not govern any mode, as erro- 
neously stated in grammars used in our schools.* It is the positive 
or dubious sense expressed in the principal proposition (739) which 
requires the indicative or subjunctive mode for verbs in the inci- 
dental one. Not needed in English, that conjunction must be always 
expressed in French (751). 

Among the different uses of the conjunction que, the principal 
are: 

1st. To connect two verbs with each other. 

Ex.: 

Je crois que l'ame est immortelle, I believe the soul to be immortal, 

2d. To connect the two terms of comparisons, answering to as or 
than (410). 

Ex.: 

Demosthenes etait plus eloquent que Demosthenes was more eloquent than 

brave, brave. 

Vous etes aussi sage que prudent (485 ), You are as wise as prudent, 

answering to : 

Vous §tes aussi sage que vous ites prudent (861, 484). 

3d. With the preposition de, to form peculiar expressions of the 
French tongue, termed Gallicisms, or French idioms : 

Ex.: 

C'est peu que c/epossederdes richesses, The possession of riches is but a slight 

advantage. 

C'est un devoir que d'obliger ses amis, It is a duty to oblige one's friends. 

C'est etre sage que de se mefier des To distrust wicked men is icisdom. 

mSchants, 

Quel plaisir que de revoir sa patrie ! To see again our country is a pleasure. 

II ne laisse pas que d'etre g6n£reux, He does not lack generosity. 

* Fasquelle's Method, 197-8; Clark's Grammar, p. 110; Pujol and Van 
Norman, p. 124-259 ; Spiers's Dictionary. 



386 GRAMMAR. 

In the above sentences que de is not expressed in English. 

S4S. Allowing the dropping of que, custom allows us to say: 

C'est peu de poss6der des richesses, 
C'est un devoir d'obliger ses amis. 

The desire of conciseness makes the latter constructions more fre- 
quent than the others. 

4th. To prevent the repetition of quand, lorsque, si, quoique, comme, 
and some other conjunctions. 

Quand on est riche et qu'oto. est gen£- When we are rich and generous, we 

reux, on ne manque pas d'amis, have many friends. 

Si vous avez des amis et que vous When you have friends, to maintain 

desiriez les conserver, prouvez- their friendship, show them your 

leur votre estime, esteem. 

In the first example, que takes the place of quand; in the second, 

that of si. 

Practice or custom will teach the proper uses of this conjunction. 

Soit, soit que, are repeated or replaced by ou, or (930). 

Ex.: 

Soit qu'il parte, soit qu'il reste, peu Whether he go or remain it matters 

importe, little, 

Soit qu'il parte ou qu'il reste, Let him go or stay. 

Remark. — The word en, we have seen, may stand as a pronoun 
(799), adverb (397), or preposition (415); it is used sometimes as a 
conjunction instead of comme, answering to as, like, in English. 

Ex.: 

II parle en sage et agit en fou, He talks like a wise man and acts at 

a fool. 

A may express relations with persons, answering to between, in 

English (864). 

Ex.: 

A nous deux nous avons fait ce tra- Between us two we have done that 
vail, work. 

Used after negations, the conjunction que answers to the adverb 

seulement, only, but. 

Ex.: 

Nous n'avons que cela a vous donner, We have only that to give you. 
Vous n'avez qu'une espgrance, You have but one hope. 

lis n'ont qu'une maison, They have only one house. 



SYNTAX OF THE INTERJECTION. 387 

QUESTIONS. 

836. Quels sont les effets produits sur la pensee par les conjonction 
et, nif 836 bis. Quand emploie-t-on etf 837. Quand fait-on usage 
de nif 838. Quelle est la remarque a faire sur Temploi de cette 
negation? 839. Quel est le mot qui precede la proposition sans, et 
quel est F autre mot qui la remplace? 839 bis. Comment rend-on en 
Anglais des cas semblables ? 840. Quelle est la signification de parce 
que quand il forme deux mots? 841. Quelle est-elle quand cette ex- 
pression se trouve divisSe en trois mots? 842. Quelle est la significa- 
tion de quoique quand il ne forme qu'un seul mot? 843. Que signi- 
fie quoi que formant deux mots? 844. Quelle est la signification 
de la conjonction quand f 845. Qu'exprime la proposition quant f 
846. Qu'avez-vous a dire sur les expressions d cause que, durant que, 
malgri quef 847. Faites-nous connaitre quelques uns des emplois 
de la conjonction quef 848. Quels sont les mots qui peuvent §tre 
remplacOs par la conjonction quef 



CHAPTER THIRTEENTH. 

Interjection (422). 

849. Ah! expresses joy or pain. 

Ex.: 

Ah ! quel bonheur, mon Dieu! • Ah! what happiness, my God! 

Ah ! que je souffre ! Ah ! what I suffer ! 

Ha ! denotes surprise, astonishment, or regret. 

Ex.: 

Ha! vous voila ! Ah! there you are ! 

Ha ! je n'en savais rien 1 . Ah ! I was not aware of it, 

850. Oh! expresses surprise or affirmation. 

Ex.: 

Oh ! je croyais le contraire ! Ah ! I thought the contrary ! 

Oh ! pour le coup je vous tiens ! Ah ! you are caught this time ! 



388 GRAMMAR. 

Ho ! is employed for calls. 

Ex.: 

Ho ! venez ici ! Ho ! come here t 

Ho! que faites-vous la! Ho! what are you doing there? 

is used as a rhetorical address, answering to the vocative case 
of the Latin. 

Ex.: 

! mon fils, adorez Dieu, et ne cherchez my son, worship God, and do not try 
pas a le comprendre, to understand him. 

supreme plaisir de pratiquer la supreme pleasure, to cultivate virtue ! 
vertu, 

851. Eh ! denotes suffering, complaining, or calls for attention. 

Ex.:' 

Eh ! qui n'a pas pleure* quelque perte Ah ! who has not mourned some cruel 
cruelle ? loss ? 

H6 ! is used to call or to warn. 

Ex.: 

He! venez done! Halloo! come hither. 

He ! que dites-vous ? Ah! what are you saying? 

A la bonne-heure! is an exclamation of surprise in French, 
answering to very well, in English. 

Ex.: 

V 

A la bonne heure ! monsieur, parlez- Very well, sir, tell me that. 
moi de cela! 

Que le diable m'emporte! corresponds with the English expressions 
the deuce take me! curse me! 

Diable! answers to Zounds! etc. (1185); sometimes it corresponds 

vrithfelloic. 

QUESTIONS. 

849. Quelle 'difference 6tablissez-vous entre les interjections ah et 
ha? 850. Comment emploie-t-on oh et ho? dites-nous quel est l'emploi 
exclusif d' Of 851. Comment employez-vous eh et h€f 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 3S9 

CHAPTER FOURTEENTH. 
Figures of Syntax in French. 

852* In every language there are common constructions of words 

which; disposed in the simplest order, indicate the progressive move- 
ments of the human mind. Every word necessary for the enunciation 
of our thoughts is expressed in those constructions without expletive 
meaning, while the greatest harmony exists between each part of 
those sentences. Conformable to the rules of general grammar, 
those constructions are called grammatical (74), or direct. 

S53. Quickness in imagination, impatience in the mind, desire 
for more conciseness or harmony, cause frequent deviations from the 
natural order. Constructions in such cases are called figurative, 
an appellation derived from the four figures of syntax, — Ellir - 
Pleonasm, Syllepsis, and Inversion. 

Ellipsis. 

§54. The ellipsis consists in the dropping of certain words neces- 
sary to complete the construction of sentences, though unnecessary 
for the meaning, those used already being substitutes for them. 

For instance, in this sentence : 

Ex.: 

N.'.re merite nous attire Festime des Our merit procures us the esteem of 

honnetes- notre e"toile honest people, our star that of the 

celle du put world, 

there is ellipsis. It is as though it were written: 

Et notre etoile nous attire celle du And our star procures us that of the 
public, world. 

In the first example, the verb and its indirect complement are 
understood in both languages (74). 

855. When the mind can supply easily the words understood, 
ellipsis is allowable. When it darkens the sense or renders it dubi- 
ous, ellipsis should not be used. The following in an instance of a 
faulty ellipsis : 

J'eusse 6te pres du Gauge esclave des faui-dieux. 
Chretienne dans Paris, Musulmane en ces lieux. 



390 GRAMMAR. 

Equivalent to : 

J'eusse etc* Chretienne dans Paris, I would have been a Christian in Paris. 

J'eusse 6te Musulmane en ces lieux, I would have been a Moslem here. 

When the true meaning is: 

J'eusse ete Chretienne dans Paris, I would have been a Christian in Paris. 

Je suis Musulmane en ces lieux, I am a Moslem here. 

Remark. — Some propositions may be elliptical in one language 
and complete in the other. 

For instance: "He is no more to be blamed for his errors than 
the governor of a city without walls, for the shelter," etc. 

There are two propositions in the above sentence. "He is no 
more to be blamed for his errors/' principal absolute complete (476, 
483), on which depends the incidental determinative elliptical pro- 
position (481,^84), "than the governor of a city without walls, for 
the shelter," etc. 

In the incidental proposition, the verb to be, and the attribute 
blamable, are dropped. Such an ellipsis is not allowable in French. 
Therefore say: 

II n'est pas plus blamable pour son He is no more to be blamed than 
erreur, que ne le seraitle gouver- (would be blamable) the governor 

neur d'une ville sans, etc., of a city without walls, etc. 

Remark. — In French, the pronoun le represents the attribute 
blamable (639) understood in English. 



Pleonasm. 

856* Pleonasm is the counterpart of ellipsis. It consists of a 
superabundance of words, which might be dropped without pre- 
judice to the meaning, as, for instance: 

Ex.: 

Je l'ai vu de mes yeux, I saw it with my own eyes. 

Je vous le dis moi, / tell you that myself. 

Je l'ai entendu de mes oreilles, / heard it with my own ears. 

Je lui ai parle a lui-meme, / spoke to him myself. 

Que m'a fait a moi cette Troie ou je What care I myself about that Troy 
cours ? whither I am going ? 

In the preceding sentences it might be said, simply : 

Je l'ai vu; je l'ai entendu; je lui ai I saw him ; I heard him ; I spoke to him; 
parle; que m'a fait cette Troie ou what care I about that Troy whither 

je cours ? / am going ? 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 391 

857. "Whenever they add grace, energy, or clearness to expressions, 
pleonasms are authorized ; but they must be looked upon as blemishes, 
or at least as marks of negligence, when consisting of verbose ex- 
pressions, weakening instead of strengthening thought. Such a 
pleonasm occurs in the following verses of Corneille : 

Trois sceptres a son trone attaches To her throne attached with my own 

par mon bras, hands, 

Parleront au lieu d'eile, et ne se Three sceptres will speak for her, and 

tairont pas, will not he silent. 

It is evident that when they speak, sceptres are not silent. Pleo- 
nasms of this kind constitute the silly style, or false pathos. 

858. A few additional examples of vicious pleonasm will show 
what is to be avoided in the use of that figure. 

Ex.: 

II faut s'entr* aider mutuellement, Help each other mutually. 

II m'a conible de mille eloges, He overwhelmed me with a thousand praises. 

II n* a seulement qu'a se montrer, He has only to show himself. 

II y eut une tempete orageuse, There was a stormy tempest. 

Peut-etre pourront-ils reussir, They may possibly succeed. 

II est possible qu'il puisse venir, It is possible that he may come. 

(1.) The word entre conveys the same idea as mutuellement. 

(2.) Mille is superfluous after combler, which always implies large 
quantities. 

(3.) Ne que, answering to seulement, is an idle repetition (815). 

(4.) TempMe cannot exist without orage, so that the adjective 
orageuse does not add any idea to the substantive it qualifies. 

(5.) Peut-etre, possible, are superflous when used in connection with 
the verb pouvoir, which conveys the same idea of contingency and 
power. 

To be correct, we must say : 

H faut s'entr aider (438), We must help each other. 

II m'a conible d'eloges, He overwhelmed me icith praises. 

II n'a qu'a se montrer, • He has only to show himself. 

II y eut une tempete, There was a tempest or storm. 

Peut-etre ils reussiront, ou, peut-etre Perhaps they icill succeed (621). 

reussiront-ils. 

II est possible qu'il vienne, He may come. 

U 



392 GRAMMAR. 

Guided by the same principle, we should not say : 

Que vous £tes bien bon ! 

Combien ce souvenir doit tous €tre bien cher. 

Je prefere plutot rester (805). 

II me fit ses adieux, et puis en suite il partit. 

II s'ensuit de la que vous avez tort, « 

Avoir une hemorragie de sang. 

Monter en haut, descendre en bas. 

Avancer en-avant, reculer en-arriere. 

But, in accordance with grammar and good practice : 

Que vous etes bon ! How good you are ! 

Combien ce souvenir doit vous etre How dear that remembrance must be to 

cher, you ! 

Je prefere rester, I prefer to remain. 

H me fit ses adieux, et puis il partit, He bade me farewell, and set out. 

II s'ensuit que vous avez tort, on, il Thence I conclude you art wrong. 

suit de la que vous, etc. } 

Avoir une hemorragie, To have a hemorrhage. 

Monter, descendre, avancer, reculer, To climb, to descend, to advance, to go 

back. 

859. In the case of monter en haut, descendre en bas, there would 
be no pleonasm if used substantively en-Tiaut meant the upper part 
of the house, en-bas the lower part. 

With that meaning it may be said : 
Montez en-haut, descendez en-bas, Go up-stairs, go downstairs. 



Syllepsis. 

860. Syllepsis is a figure of syntax regulating the agreement of 
some words with others, when connected by the sense, though having 
themselves no grammatical connection. 

With syllepsis we will say : 

Ex.: 

Une multitude de personnes sont A great number of persons are come. 
venues, 

In this sentence the verb and participle agree with the common 
substantive personne, requiring principally our attention, though 
connected grammatically with the collective multitude (278). 

Many constructions may be justified by means of syllepsis. 
Illustrious French writers frequently make use of this figure. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 393 

Among the numerous examples, we will quote the following from 
Racine : 

Entre 7e pauvre et vous vous prendrez Take God for judge between you and 

Dieu pour juge, poor people, 

Yous souvenant, mon fils, que cache Remembering, my son, that under that 

sous ce lin, line* dress, 

Comme eux vous futes pauvre, et Such as they were, poor and orphan 

comme eux orphelin, you have been. 

The grammatical construction requires the pronoun lui instead of 
eux ; lui having as antecedent the substantive pauvre, masculine 
singular. But, impressed by the multiplicity of poor people in the 
world, the inspired poet clothes the idea with expressions agreeing 
with the absorbing thought in his mind, without regard to the 
words he has previously used. 



Inversion. 
S61. Inversions occur when words in constructions are not 
arranged according to their grammatical order, which is : 

First, the subject (456), Dieu, God 

Xext, the verb (458) and attribute, protege for est protegeant, protects 
Last, the complement (460), l'homme, man, 

AVhen Flechier exclaims : 

D§ja-prenait l'essor pour se sauver Already was seeking a shelter in our 

dans nos montagnes, cet aigle nwuntains that eagle whose auda- 

dont le vol hardi avait d'abord cious flight had struck our pro- 

effraye nos provinces, rinces with terror, 

he makes an inversion. According to grammatical rule, cet aigle, 
the subject, which should precede the verb, is placed after it. This 
bold inversion presents a perfect rhetorical picture of what the orator 
describes, — bringing first before our mind the main object of his 
thought, the rapid flight of the eagle (456). 

86*2. Inversions are more frequent in poetry than in prose ; 
being the language of the passions, poetry requires more vivacity 
and boldness of expression. 

863. Nevertheless, either in prose or verse, perplexing the sense 
instead of rendering sentences easy or smooth, darkening rather 
than brightening ideas, false inversions must be carefully avoided. 
The defect of the sentence, quoted Xo. 711: 

Croyez-vous pouvoir ramener ces esprits £gares par la douceur? 



394 GRAMMAR. 

consists in a false inversion giving to the Wordstar la douceur another 
connection than that which exists in the mind. It is a violation of 
rule 711, applicable either to English or French constructions. 

QUESTIONS. 

852. Qu'appelle-t-on construction grammaticale ? 853. Qu'est-ce 
qu'une construction figuree ? 854. Quelle est la figure de syntaxe 
appellee ellipse? 855. Quand Fellipse est-elle permise ? 856. Qu'en- 
tendez-vous par pUonasme, et qu'est-ce qui le constitue? 857. Dans 
quel cas peut-on employer le pleonasme ? 858. Citez-nous quelques 
exemples de pleonasmes vicieux? 859. Quand peut-on se servir de 
pareilles expressions, monter en-Jiaut, descendre en-has f 860. Quelle 
est la figure de syntaxe appellee syllepse? 861. Quelle est 1' autre 
figure que Ton designe sous le nom & inversion ? 862. Dans quel genre 
de litterature emploie-t-on le plus Vinversion ? 863. Dans quels cas 
emploie-t-on avantageusement Vinversion f 



CHAPTER FIFTEENTH. 

Particular Observations. 
864. A, De (823). 
C'est a vous d expresses the idea of turn : 

Ex.: 

Je viens de jouer, c'est a vous d jouer, 1 have just heen playing ; it is now your 

turn, 

C'est a vous de conveys the idea of right or duty. 

Ex.: 

C'est a vous de jouer le premier, It is for you to play first. 

A expresses also the connection between objects, their use and 
their form. 

Ex.: 

Une bouteille d vin d goulot Stroit, A wine-bottle with a narrow neck. 

TJn de d coudre ou d jouer, A thimble or a die. 

Une table-a-jeu, A card-table. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 395 

De refers to the contents of those objects, their nature or material, 

corresponding to of in English, when expressed in that language. 

Ex.: 

Un tonneau de vin, un tonneau de A cask of wine, a wooden tun, a glass 
bois, une bouteille de verre, une bottle, a bottle of oil or of wine. 

bouteille cf huile ou de vin, 

Those two prepositions are used before proper nouns, or common 
substantives employed determinately or indeterminately, in affirma- 
tive or negative propositions. 

Ex.: 

Je vais d Paris, je viens de Lyon, I go to Paris, I come from Lyons. 

Je vais d la maison, je viens de la / go to the house, I come from the 

ville, city. 

II ne viect pas de la maison, il n'a pas He does not come from the house, he has 

de maisons, no houses. 

A, de, are used to connect substantives with their complements 
(304, 534, 881). 

When distances are to be expressed preceded by etre, d answers 
to within in English (826). 

Ex.: 

Nous sommes a une lieue de la maison, We are within a mile of the house. 

Remark. — J. is used before proper names, common substantives 
either determinate or indeterminate, adverbial expressions, or with 
nouns used in but one number (848).* 

Ex.: 

Je suis a Londres, vous etes d Paris, I am in London, you are in Paris. 

Celle maison est d Louis, celle-la d This house belongs to Louis, that to 
v Jules, Julius. 

A tort et d travers, d gauche et d Right or wrong, left and right. 

droite, 

Je vais a la maison, lui va d la chasse, I go to the house, he goes hunting. 

Aller a vepres, aller d ealifourchon, Going to vespers, to straddle. 

865. A, Ou. 

A, says the Academy, is used between two numbers admitting 
of intermediary numbers, answering to to in English. 

*See Fasquelle's Method, p. 455-2, Pujol and Van Norman, p. 254-319 and 
following, for instances of complete oversight of jgeneral principles, basing their 
theories at random on exceptional cases. 

34* 



396 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Vingt d trente hommes, From twenty to thirty men. 

Quinze a vingt francs, From fifteen to twenty francs. 

Dix d douze chevaux, From ten to twelve horses. 

Viz. : A number of men between twenty and thirty, etc. 

A is used in the same manner between two numbers which have 
no intermediary numbers, as, for instance, 5 and 6, 9 and 10, 15 and 
16, provided those numbers connect objects susceptible of separa- 
tion, answering to to in English. 

Ex. : , 

Deux d trois livres de Sucre, From two to three pounds of sugar. 

Cinq d six lieues, From five to six leagues. 

Trois d quatre metres de drap, From three to four yards of cloth. 

Since d is thus used only in the case of objects susceptible of 
division or separation, according to Academic authority, we cannot 
say: 

Ex. : 

Cinq d six personnes, From five to six persons, 

Onze d douze chevaux, From eleven to twelve horses, 

Onze d douze maisons, From eleven to twelve houses, 

because we cannot divide into fractions persons, horses, or houses. In 
such cases ou must be used instead of d. 

Ex.: 

Cinq ou six personnes, onze ou douze maisons, etc. 

When exclusion is given to any of them, ou is used between two 
numbers (683), answering to or in English. 

Ex.: 
Sept ou huit hommes, Seven or eight men. 

Quinze ou seize maisons, Fifteen or sixteen houses. 

Cinq ou six arbres, Five or six trees. 

Viz. : Either one or the other number of men, houses, or trees. 

From the foregoing, though with different meaning, we may say, 
equally : 

Trente d quarante cavaliers, ou trente Thirty to forty horsemen, or thirty or 
ou quarante cavaliers, forty horsemen. 

865 bis. Aider. 

Aider quelqu'un is simply to assist. 

Ex.: 
Aider quelqu'un de sa bourse,* To help some one with money. 

L'aider de sea conseils, de son credit, To help him with advice, with credit. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 397 

Aider a quelqu'un is to give a hand, to help somebody in labor or 

trouble. 

Ex.: * 

Aidez d cet homme a porter ce fardeau, Help that man to carry that burden, 

Aidez-lui d se relever, Help him to get up. 

Aidez d cet enfant d faire son theme, Help that child in his exercise. 

Abonder, to be abundant, plentiful, may correspond with to acquiesce, 
to agree with. 

Ex.: 

Ce pays abonde en denrges, That country abounds in produce. 

Nous abondons dans votre sens, We agree with you. 

Speaking of coin, bas-aloi means base, uncurrent. Referring to 

persons or things, it expresses vulgarity or meanness. 

Ex.: 

Un metal de bas-aloi, A base metal. 

Des manieres de bas-aloi, Vulgar manners. 

Un personnage de bas-aloi, A mean person. 

Preceded by the substantive gens, or any other word marking 
social, professional positions or manners, bas-e'tage refers to low 
people or mean fellows. 

Ex.: 

Gens de bas-6tage, Mean people. 

Avocat de bas-etage, A pettifogger. 

Politesse de bas-etage, Low manners. 



866. Air, Ton. 
Without agreement with the substantive femme, woman, we should 
say : 

Cette femme a l'air bon, l'air spirituel, That woman has an appearance of 

goodness, a witty look, 

because it is the exterior, the countenance of the woman, not herself, 
that is qualified by goodness (575) or wit In proof of this, we 
will say : 

Ex.: 

Cette femme a Fair bon, et elle est That woman appears good, and she is 

mechante, bad. 

Elle a Tair spirituel, et elle est sotte, She looks witty, and is a dunce. 

Custom does not allow the use of the substantive air, countenance, 



398 GRAMMAR. 

in reference to objects void of intelligence: therefore we cannot 

say: 

Cette pomme a l'air cuit. 
Cette terre a l'air ensemence'e. 
Cette robe a l'air bien fait. 

Cases like these require different constructions. 

To be correct, we should use the following expressions : 

Ex.: 

Cette pomme a l'air d'etre cuite, ou That apple appears to he baked, 

parait cuite, 

Cette terre a l'air d'etre ensemencee, That land appears to be sowed, or ap- 

ou parait ensemencee, pears seeded, 

Un ton, un air f&che, un air reveur, answer in English to a dis- 
pleased or melancholy look (1152). They follow the same rule. 

86*7. Anoblir, Ennoblir. 
Anoblir signifies to give patents of nobility. 
Ex.: 
II n'y a que le roi qui puisse anoblir, The king alone can make noblemen, 

Ennoblir, to make more brilliant, more illustrious. 

Ex.: 

Les beaux-arts ennoblissent une Ian- Fine arts render a language brilliant, 
gue, 

868. Armistice, Amnistie. 

Armistice signifies the suspension of hostilities between two bel- 
ligerent powers. 

Ex.: 
1/ armistice ne tarda pas a cesser, The armistice was soon over, 

Amnistie, amnesty, means the forgiveness granted by sovereign 
powers to rebellious subjects after revolt. 

Ex.: 
Le roi accorda une amnistie, The king granted an amnesty. 

869. Assurer (1092). 
Assurer quelqu'un is to assure somebody, or to testify. 

Ex.: 

Assurez vos parents de mon estime, Assure your parents (or relations) of 

my esteem. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 399 

Assurer d quelqu'un is to assert or affirm to somebody that some- 
thing is positive. 
Ex.: 

Mentor assura d Telemaque qu'il Mentor assured Telemachus that he 
reverrait Ulysse, would see Ulysses again. 

Remark. — In French, parent has a more extended meaning than 
in English. In the first language it applies not only to fathers and 
mothers, but to all family connections. 

870. Atteindre. 

This verb is either neuter or active (77, 87). 

Atteindre, to reach, is said of things. It implies difficulty. 

Ex.: 

Atteindre au plafond, atteindre aubut, To reach the ceiling, to reach the goal, 
atteindre a la perfection, to attain perfection. 

In this acceptation it is neuter, taking indirect complements or 
objects (706). 

Atteindre, active or transitive verb, said of persons or things, takes 
direct objects, and signifies to.hit, to catch, to strike, to equal, etc. (77). 

Ex.: 

Atteindre quelqu'un au front, To hit or strike somebody on the fore* 

head. 
Atteindre un voleur qui se sauve, To catch a thief running away. 

Atteindre La Fontaine dans Tapolo- To equal La Fontaine in fable -making. 

It is used also in speaking of things obtained without exertion, 
will, or wish of our own. 

Ex.: 
Atteindre un certain age, To arrive at a certain age. 

Atteindre le terme de r armistice, To come to the end of the armistice. 

Remark. — Un certain age, in French, is a very flexible expression, 
answering in meaning to a pretty old age. 

870 bis. Attraper. 
Attraper, active or transitive verb, has very different meanings in 
French. It is said of persons or things, and takes direct objects. 
Attraper may mean to catch or to seize. 

Ex.: 

Ce sergent-de-ville a attrape" le voleur, That policeman caught the thief. 



400 GRAMMAR. 

It may also signify to fool, to deceive. 
Ex.: 

Mais le voleur, a son tour, a attrape But the thief, in his turn, fooled the 
le sergent-de-ville en lui 6chap- policeman by running away. 

pant, 

It has also, at times, the meaning of to get, to gain, in English. 
Ex.: 

II attrapa des coups dans le combat, He got some knocks in the affray. 
lis ont aussi attrape un peu d'argent, They also got a little money. 

Donner le change is to befool another, prendre le change is to be 
befooled by others. 

871. Arssi, Non plus. 

Aussi, non plus, are used for pareillenient, equally, also, too. 

Aussi is used when the meaning is positive, answering to too in 
English. 

Ex.: 
Je sortirai aussi, / icill go too. 

Xon plus, when the meaning is negative, answering to either. 
Ex.: 
Je ne sortirai pas non plus, I icill not go, either. 

Both may be used with words of a partitive meaning (537). 
Ex.: 

Xous sortirons aussi pour quelque We will go out, too, for some time. 

temps. • 

Vous ne sortirez pas non plus de quel- You icill not go out, either, for some time, 

que temps, 

It would, however, be more elegant to say (621) : 

Aussi sortirons-nous pour quelque temps, non plus ne sortirez-vous pas de 
quelque temps. 

§72. AvAXT DE., A HOIKS DE, AVANT QUE DE, A MOIXS QUE DE. 

Avant que de, d moins que de, are more energetic, but less used, 
than avant de, a moins de, answering to before, unless, in English. 

Au-devant. en-avant, en-arriere, are prepositive expressions, mean- 
ing to go ahead, to meet, to go backward (418). 

Ex. : 

Xous allons au-devant d'eux. We go to meet them. 

Vous allez en-avant de ces gens, You go ahead of those people. 

lis marchent en-arriere du regiment, They icalk in the rear of the regiment. 

Vous allez en-arriere, You go backward. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 401 

873. Baigner, Promener, Coucher. 
Do not say : 

Je vais baigner, nous irons promener, il va coucher. 

Those verbs are in such cases pronominal or reflective (93) : there- 
fore, with the objective pronoun of those infinitives, say: 

Je vais me baigner, I go to bathe, 

Nous irons nous promener, We trill go to take a walk, 

II va se coucher, He goes to bed, 

avoiding such incorrect expressions as, Je me vais baigner, nous nous 
irons promener, etc. 

Said of persons or things, ileuer signifies to raise, to rise, to educate, 
to build. 

Ex.: 

J'eleve cet enfant, I educate that child. 

Vous elevez un mur, You raise a wall. 

In the same connection, and conjugated reflectively, s' Clever has 
the meaning of to raise, to build, to amount to, to bring one's self, 

Ex. : 

Je in'eleve au-dessus de lui, / rise above him. 

Le chateau s'eleve aux d6pens de la The castle is built at the expense of the 

chauniiere, cottage. - 

Sa fortune s'eleve a cent mille francs,- His (or her) fortune amounts to one hun- 
dred thousand francs. 

Elle s'eleve dans la vertu, She raises herself in virtue. 

Le soleil s'eleve sur l'horison, The sun rises above the horizon. 

ST4. Beaucoup. 
Beaucoup or de beaucoup are used before the adverbs plus, moins, 
when modifying adjectives. 
Ex.: 

Vous etes beaucoup ou de beaucoup You are much less rich, much less 
moins riche : moins ou de beau- favored with fortune. 

coup moins fortune, 

Vous etes beaucoup ou de beaucoup You are much more skilful than he. 
plus habile que lui, 

In such cases those adverbs answer to much more, much less. 
After those adverbs de beaucoup must be always used, signifying 
by far. 

Ex.: 

Vous £tes moins habile de beaucoup, You are less skilful by for. 
II est plus riche de beaucoup, He u more rich by far. 



402 GRAMMAR. 

875. A la Campagne, En Campagne (864, 825). 

Eire a la campagne is to be for a while in the country, or to reside 

there. 

Ex.: 

H est agreable de passer la belle sai- It is agreeable to spend the fine weather 

son a la campagne, Ml the country. 

U est sain de vivre a la campagne, To reside in the country is healthful. 

Eire en campagne is to make war, to prosecute something, or to 
be from home upon business. 

Ex.: 

Les troupes sont en campagne, The troops are in the field. 

II s'est mis en campagne pour le re- He is gone to hunt him out. 

trouver, 

Nous avons mis notre monde en cam- We have set our whole household on 

pagne, foot.* 



876. Capable, Susceptible. 

In the sense of having capacity, disposition, or fitness for doing 
any thing, capable is used for persons or things (578). It requires the 
preposition de before its complement. 

Ex.: 

Serez-vous capable de porter ce far- Will you be able to carry that burden t 

deau? 
Cette digue n'est pas capable de r6- That dike cannot resist. 

sistance, 
Une ame capable de moderation, A soul capable of moderation. 

When its meaning is that of aptitude to receive certain qualities 
or modifications, susceptible is said only of things. 

Ex.: 

L'esprit de Thomme est susceptible de The mind of man is susceptible of good 
bonnes et de mauvaises impres- or bad impressions, 

sions, 

except in the acceptation where susceptible answers to irritable, tick- 
lish, easy to offend. 

Ex.: 

Cette femme et cet homme sont tres- That woman and man are easily of- 
susceptibles, folded. 

*See Pujol and Van Norman for this definition, p. 256-323. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 403 

877. COLORER, COLORIER. 

Colorer, to put on colors, to tinge. 

Ex.: 

L'art de colorer le verre, The art of coloring glass. 

Le soleil colore les fruits, The sun tinges fruits. 

Un vif incarnat colorait son visage, A lively hue tinged his (or her) face 

(367). 

Colorier, to color' engravings, or to mix colors in painting. 
Titien coloriait parfaitement, Titian mixed his colors to perfection. 

878. COMMENCER. 

Commencer a denotes actions which will have progress, ameliora- 
tion, or growth. 

Ex.: 

Cet enfant commence d parler. That child begins to speak. 

Ces plantes commencent d pousser, Those plants begin to grow. 

Commencer de is used to express actions having duration, a limited 
continuance. 

Ex.: 

II commenca de parler a cinq heures He began to speak at five o'clock and 
et ne finit qu'a huit, stopped at eight 

879. Comparer. 

Comparer a implies analogy, resemblance between the terms of 
the comparison. 

Ex.: 

^Tomparer le temps a un fleuve. To compare time to a river. 

Comparer les ouvrages de la nature d To compare the works of nature to those 
ceux de l'homme, of man. 

Comparer avec is used where there is neither analogy nor resem- 
blance between the objects compared, — that is, where they are brought 
in contrast. 

Ex.: 

Comparer le vice avec la vertu. To compare vice with virtue. 

Comparer la vie avec la mort, To compare life with death. 

Comparer le ciel avec Tenfer, To compare heaven with hell. 

880. Coxsommer, Consumer. 

Consommer indicates the annihilation of things by the use made 
of them. 



104 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Consommer beaucoup de vin, To use much wine. 

Consonimer des denrSes, To consume provisions. 

Consumer expresses the successive destruction of things. In its 
proper acceptation it is used for fire; and, by analogy, for time, 
disease, life (1104). 

Ex.: 

Le feu consuma tout PSdifice, The fire consumed the whole building. 

Le temps consume tout, Time destroys every thing. 

Cette maladie le consume, That disease consumes him. 

881. De. 

The uses of this preposition are various. 

(1.) When comparisons stand between two infinitives, the preposi- 
tion de, answering to than, in English, is placed before the second 
infinitive. 

Ex.: 

J'aimerais mieux mourir que de per- / would rather die than lose the esteem 

dre l'estime des honnetes-gens, of honest people. 

J'aime autant rester que de sortir 1 prefer staying to going, or, / would 

(847), • rather stay than go. 

Except in some proverbial sentences, where it is dropped. 

Ex.: 

S'instruire et lire vaut mieux que To learn and to read is better than to 

s'amuser, play* 

Se taire vaut mieux que trop parler, It is better to remain silent than to talk 

too much. m 

(2.) After a numeral adjective or collective nouns, the preposition 
de may be either expressed or understood before modifiers. 

Ex.: 

II y eut cent soldats tues, ou, cent One hundred soldiers were killed, 

soldats de tu6s, 
II y eut un petit nombre de prisonniers A sinall number of prisoners were 

de massacres, ou, un petit nombre slaughtered. 

de prisonniers massacres, 

When the pronoun en takes the place of modified substantives 
representing persons or things (377), it renders the use of the prepo- 
sition de indispensable; and avoir, in French, has then the meaning 
of to be, in English. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 405 



Ex.: 



Bur mille soldats il y en eut cent de Out of a thousand soldiers, one hundred 

tues, icere killed. 

Sur dix enfants il y en eut cinq de Out of ten children, five were found 

legers, thoughtless. 

Sur douze arbres il y en eut neuf Out of twelve trees, nine were cut down. 

oPabattus, 

Remark. — The preposition sar, in the above examples, corresponds 
to the English expression out of. 

(3.) In the following cases the preposition de may be either used 
or dropped in French. 

Ex.: 

Quel est le plus eloquent de Bossuet Who is the more eloquent, Bossuet or 

ou de Massillon? Massillon? 

Lequel preferez-vous de Corneille ou Which do you prefer, Corneille or 

de Racine? Racine? 

or, as it is expressed in English; Lequel pre"f<erez-vous, Corneille ou 
Racine ? 

Used idiomatically with the verbs prendre, jeter, tomber, arracher, 
etc., the preposition de answers to from, out, in English, when those 
words in that language are followed by determinate nouns. 

Nous fumes jetes de cheval, We were thrown from our horses. 

lis tomberent de voiture, They fell out of their carriage. 

On l'arracha de prison, He was taken out of jail. 

In some cases, the preposition de has the signification of on, in 

English. 

Ex.: 

De retour a la maison, On our return to our house. 

De retour du voyage, On our return from travelling. 

De retour du bal, On our return from the ball. 

Before determinate substantives, the preposition d&s must be used 

instead of de, answering to as soon. 



Ex.: 



Des man retour du bal, As soon as I returned from the ball. 

Des son entree a la maison, As soon as he entered the house. 



882. Dejeuner, DIxer, Souper. 

Dejeuner, diner, souper, or analogous words, in French, with the 
names of persons take avec, with. 



406 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Dejeuner avec un ami, To breakfast with a friend. 

Diner avec son pere, To dine with his father. 

Souper avec sa famille, To sup with his family. 

They require the conjunction en, when, placed on the footing of 
relations, friends are partakers of those sociable meals where cere- 
mony is banished. The word en in that case answers to comme, as 
(848), in English. 

Ex.: 

Vos amis et moi soupames hier en Your friends and I supped (as friends) 
famille chez monsieur le Prefet, with the prefect yesterday. 

Before nouns representing food or drinks, they require the preposi- 
tion de, answering to with or on in English. 

Ex.: 

Dejeuner de the* ou de cafe, To breakfast with tea or coffee. 

Diner d'un pate" d'oie, To dine on a goose-pie. 

Souper ePune salade de laitue, To sup on salad of lettuce. 

Remark. — When invitations are intended, the preposition en may 
be used in connection with those words (415). 

Ex.: 

Aujourd'hui je dine en ville, To-day I dine out, 

answering literally to the English expression to-day I dine in town. 



QUESTIONS. 

864. Quelle difference faut-il faire entre ces deux expressions, c'est 
a vous d, c'est a vous de? 865. Comment doit-on employer la propo- 
sition d avec les nombres, et quand faut-il remplacer cette propo- 
sition par la conjonction out 865 bis. Quelle difference Otablissez- 
vous entre aider quelqu J un, et aider d quelqu'tm? 866. Faites-nous 
connaitre Temploi du mot air Equivalent a exUrieur, apparence? 
867. Quelle est la signification des verbes anoblir et ennoblirf 868. 
Que signifie armistice et amnistie? 869. Quelle distinction faut-il 
faire entre assurer qudqiCun et assurer a quelqu'un? 870. Quelles 
sont les acceptions du verbe atteindref 870 bis. Quelles sont celles 
du verbe attraper? 871. Quel est le mot que remplacent aussi, worn 
phis? 872. Qu'avez-vous a dire sur les locutions pr6 positives avant 
de, d moins de, d moins que de, et quelles sont celles que Ton emploie 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 407 

a leur place? 873. Comment doit-on employer les verbes baigner, 
promener, coucher, dans leur acception pronominale? 874. Quel 
est Pemploi de beaucoup avec les adverbes plus, moinst 875. Quelle 
est la signification des expressions d la campagne et en campagne f 
876. Capable et susceptible ont-ils le meme emploi, et que signifie ce 
dernier mot quand on l'emploie ayant rapport aux personnes? 877. 
Quelle distinction 6tablissez-vous entre colorer et colorier? 878. Que 
signifie commencer a, et commencer def 879. Quand faut-il employer 
la preposition a avec le verbe comparer, quand faut-il se servir 
dtavecf 880. Que signifient les mots consommer et consumer f 881. 
Indiquez les principaux emplois de la preposition de ? 882. Quelles 
propositions faut-il employer avec les verbes diner t dejeuner, etc., 
pour joindre ces verbes a leurs complements? 

883. De Loin en Loin. 

De loin d loin is sometimes used in the place of this expression. 
Nevertheless, by the sanction of good writers, de loin en loin, answer- 
ing to from time to time, is the better term. 

Ex.: 

Nous les voyons de loin en loin, We see them (or, vitit them) from time 

to time. 

D'une maniere ou d'autre, d'une maniere ou de P autre, d'un biais 
ou d'un autre, d'un biais ou de Tautre, have the same meaning, 
answering to by all means, anyhow, in any way, in English. 

Ainsi, so, may take the place of either of them. 

Ex.: 

Je serai content d'un biais ou de By all means I will be satisfied. 

V autre, 

Ainsi je serai tres-satisfait, Thus I will be very much pleased. 

D'une maniere ou d'autre partez sans At any rate, go without delay. 

retard, 

Connaitre de longue-main signifies to have known persons or things 
for a long time. 

Ex.: 

Je connais votre p&re de longue-main, / have long been acquainted with your 

father. 
Je sais cela de longue-main, I have known that for a long time, 

35* 



M8 GRAMMAR. 

554. Demaix. Hier. 

After the adverbs demain. hier is optional to use or to 

drop the preposition a. connected or blended with the forms of the 
determinate article le. la. les ^316). "We mav sav: 

Ex.: 
II arrivera demain au soir. ou demain He icill arrive to-morrow evening. 

Je le vis hier au matin, ou hier matin, I saw him yesterday morning. 
"Sous nous rencontrames hier soir, ou We met last evening. 
hier au soir, 

After expressions of a determinate meaning, the forms of the ar- 
ticle may be either dropped or retained. 
Ex.: * 

Apres le diner, ou apres diner, After dinner. 

Avant les vepres. ou avant vepres, Before vem 

Apres h souper, ou apres souper, After supper. 

"With the verb venir we mav say, without or with different prepo- 
sitions: 

Tenez le matin, venez a midi. venez Come in the morning, come at ticelte, 
dans l'apres-midi. venez le soir. come in the afternoon, come in the 

evening. 

555. Dicks, Ixdigxe. 

"Without negations. a connected with either good or evil, and 

takes indirect objects 414 . 
Ex.: 

II est digne de louange, il e?t digne He deserves praise, he deserves blame. 

de blame, 

Digne with negations, indigne without, are used only for good, 
taking also indirect complements. 

Ex.: 
H n'est pas digne de recompenses, He does not deserve rewards. 

H est indigne de recomper - He is undeserving of rewards. 

Hence we cannot say in French: H n'est pas digne de punition, il 
est indigne de ; 

In such cases we must make use of different constructions: 

Ex.: 
II ne m€rite pas une pun::: He does not deserve a punishment, 

where the person spoken of is not in fault : 

H ne vaut pas la peine de le punir, It is not worth while to punish him, 

whew? a trifling offence has imitted. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 409 

II ne vaut pas la punition qu'on lui in- He is not tcorth punishing, 
fligera, 

when the perverseness of the delinquent is such that it is considered 
hopeless to endeavor to reform him. 

Digne, in French, sometimes corresponds to the adjective worthy, in 
English. 

Ex.: 

Ce monsieur est un digne-homme, That gentleman is a worthy man. 

Un maitre-homrae, une maitresse-femme, signify, in English, a 
competent man or woman. 

Un luron, un gaillard, answer to a fellow, in English. They take 
the feminine form in French. 

Speaking of a woman, we might say: 

Ex.: 

Cette luronne nva trompe. That buxom woman deceived me. 

1/ autre est une gaillarde dont il faut The other is one whom you must distrust, 
se mefier, 

886. Dispute*. 

When meaning to debate, to contest, to quarrel, disputer is a 
neuter verb (87). 

Therefore do not say, with a reflective pronoun, ils se sont long- 
temps disputes, instead of 

Ex. : 

Us ont long-temps dispute, They quarrelled a long time. 

S8T. Durant, Pendant (825). 

Dm ant expresses uninterrupted duration; pendant, a moment, or 

limited time. 

Ex.: 

Les troupes se sont cantonne"es durant The troops have been quartered during 
rhiver, winter. 

That is to say, they have kept their quarters during winter. 

Elles se sont cantonn§es pendant They took to their quarters during 
Fhiver, winter. 

That is, they chose that season to go into their quarters. 



410 GRAMMAR. 

888. Eminent, Imminent. 

Danger eminent, peril Eminent, mean great but not irretrievable 
danger ; danger imminent, p6ril imminent, signify present and 
almost unavoidable danger. 

Un homme qui fait une entreprise A man who embarks in a rash enter- 

temeraire est dans un peril emi- prise is in great danger. 

nent, 

Un navire qui se brise contre les A ship thrown upon rocks is in immi- 

rochers est dans un peril immi- nent danger. 

nent, 

889. Emprunter. 

According to Academical authority, emprunter may take either a) 
or de. 
Ex.: 

Emprunter d quelqu'un, emprunter de To borrow from somebody. 

quelqu'un, 

II a emprunte cela d Homere ou He borrowed thai from Homer, 

d'Homere, 

Except when having the acceptation of to get from, to owe to, in 
which case de alone is used. 
Ex.: 

Les magistrats empruntent toute leur Magistrates borrow their authority from 

autorite* de la justice; c. a d., justice; — viz., they owe their author- 

doivent toute leur autorite d la ity to justice. 
justice, 

La lune emprunte sa lumiere du soleil, The moon borrows its light from the sun. 

890. Ennuyant, Ennuyeux. 

Ennuyant means an importunate fatiguing person, or a thing oc- 
casionally so. 
Ex.: 

Un enfant ennuyant, A dull child. 

Un temps ennuyant, A dull weather. 

Ennuyeux signifies a person or thing habitually gloomy or tiresome. 
Ex.: 

Une personne ennuyeuse, A tiresome person. 

Un livre ennuyeux, A tiresome book. 

A man, therefore, who is not habitually ennuyeux, tiresome, may 
nevertheless be ennuyant, fatiguing. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 411 

S91. Entendre Raillerie, Entendre la Raillerie. 

Entendre raillerie is not to be offended by jokes, to take jokes ; 
entendre la raillerie is to understand jesting. 

Vous entendez tres-bien la raillerie Tom take joking very tcell when othere 

quand d'autres que moi yous font than myself laugh at your little fail- 

la guerre sur vos petits defauts. ings. 

Peu de personnes entendent la fine et Few understand delicate or innocent 

innocente raillerie, raillery. 

Taquiner has the meaning of to tease. Plaisanter may be used 
also with the same meaning. 

Taquin, taquine, correspond to a teaser; taquineries, to teasing. 

Ex.: 

Sivousme taquinez,je voustaquinerai Should you tease me, / will tease you 

aussi, too. 

Vos taquineries ne sont pas de bon Your jesting is not in very good taste. 

gout, 

Votre frere est un taquin, ma sceur Your brother arid my sister are te t ases. 

une taquine, 



$92. E> 



Envier, Porter Enyie. 

Envier, to envy, is said of things. Porter envie, to feel envious, is 

said of persons only. 

Ex.: 

II envie le bonheur d'autrui. He covets other people's happiness. 

Le sage ne porte envie a personne, The wise man envies no one. 

893. Esperer, Promettre, Compter. 
Conveying the idea of future actions, these verbs should not be 
followed by others (20) used in the present or in any past tense 
(52). Hence, we cannot say: 

J'espere que vous faites des progr£s, I hope you make progress. 

Je vous promets que j'ai dit la verite, I promise you I have told the truth. 

Je compte que vous etes sage, I rely upon it that you are wise. 

In such cases, to express a present (52) we must instead of the 
above verbs use croire, penser, se flatter, assurer: to believe, to think, 
to flatter one's self, to assure. 

Ex.: 

Je pense que vous faites des progres, I think you are making progress. 

Je vous assure que j'ai dit la verite, I assure you that I told the truth. 

Je me flatte que vous obeissez a vos / flatter myself that you obey your 
parents, parents. 



412 GRAMMAR. 

Using the second verb in the future, with esp&rer, promettre, or 
tompter, we might say : 

J*espere que yousferez des progres, I hope you will make progress, 

Je promets que vous irez la, I promise you shall go there. 

Je compte que vous serez sage, I rely upon it that you will be good. 



894. Et (836). 
Denoting addition, this conjunction must not be used : 
1st. To connect synonymous expressions ; because, though several 
words are required, there is nevertheless but one idea to be pre- 
sented. 

Un courage, une valeur, . A courage or valor. 

Ame grande, magnaniine, Great, magnanimous soul. 

Un mot sublime ravit, transporte, A sublime word ravishes, enraptures* 

2d. To connect expressions which lead to a climax ; because in 
those cases the last word contains always the predominant idea. 

Nous devons a la patrie nos pensees, We owe to our. country our thoughts, 

notre affection, notre vie, our affection, our life. 

I/equipage suait, soufflait, etait rendu, The team, sweating, blowing, was ex- 
hausted, 

not: 

Nous devons a la patrie nos pensees, notre affection et notre vie. 
I/equipage suait, soufflait et Stait rendu. 

This remark applies with equal force to subjects composed of 
several words (469, 682, 683, 689) etc. 



895* Etre Aller. 

Je fus, I was, should never be used for j'allai, I went. Corneille 
was wrong in saying: 

II fut jusques a Rome implorer le sSnat, 

when grammatical correctness requires: 

II alia jusques a Rome (ou jusqu'a He went as far as Rome to implore 
Rome) implorer le senat (828), the Senate. 

J'ai 6U supposes return from places : it expresses past actions. 
On the contrary the past indefinite of aller, to go, je suis all6, I have 
gone, does not. Consequently, when we say : 

II a 6te a l'Sglise, He has been to church, 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 413 

' we mean that the person spoken of has been to church and has 
returned, — and that the action expressed is over (715). 

H est alle* a l'Sglise, He is gone to church, 

on the contrary, denotes that the person has gone to church and has 
not yet returned. 

896. Eviter. 
Signifying to fly from, to evade, this verb must not be used in the 
signification of 6pargner, to spare. " Je vous literal cette peine" 
should not be used when we mean : 
Je vous gpargnerai cette peine, I will spare you that trouble. 

897. Faire (see 1026 and following). 

This verb has several uses : 

1st. For the summing up of numbers it must be preferred to 6tre, 
to be. 

Ex.: 
Dix et dix font vingt, Ten and ten are twenty, 

instead of sont vingt, as expressed in English. 

2d. To prevent the repetition of a preceding verb, faire, to do, is 
used in both languages. 

Ex.: 

Je lui ai ecrit, comme je devais le I wrote to him, as I was bound to do. 
faire, 

Here faire, to do, obviates the necessity of repeating Scrire, to 

write. 

Remark. — In these cases, faire does not admit of direct comple- 
ments. We should not say, with Bossuet : 

II fallait cacher la penitence avec le me'me soin qu'on eut fait le crime, 

meaning, literally, 

Penitence should be hidden with the same care as the crime was perpetrated, 

when the idea intended to be expressed is : 

De meme qu'on eut cache le crime, As the crime was concealed, so should be 
fallait-il cacher la penitence, the repentance. 

3d. Followed by infinitives, faire requires direct complements 
when those infinitives have no complements of that nature (73). 

Ex.: 
Je lea ai fait partir (792), 1 made them go, 



414 GRAMMAR. 

or indirect (74) complements when those infinitives have direct ones. 

Je leur ai fait Scrire une lettre, I made them write a letter. 

4th. Used in the passive voice, /aire should not be followed by 
present infinitives, as in this sentence : 

II a ete fait mourir. 
Say, according to rule 623 : 
On Ta fait mourir, They made him die. 

5th. Nefaire que denotes actions frequently repeated, or constant: 

II ne fait que sortir, He goes out at every moment. 

Elle ne fait que parler, She does not cease talking. 

Nous ne faisons qu'etudier, We always study. 

Nefaire que de indicates actions just accomplished (841, 1154). 
II ne fait que de sortir, He has just gone out. 

898. Fixer. 

This verb means to settle, to stand still, to appoint, etc. 

Fixer un jour, To appoint a day. 

Fixer un inconstant, To render sedate an inconstant man. 

Fixer un clou dans un mur, To drive a nail in a wall. 

It never signifies to look steadily in the face, to stare at. Therefore 
do not say : 

J'ai longtemps fixe cette personne sans pouvoir la reconnaitre. 
The proper expression would be : 

JfSi regarde longtemps cette personne / looked that person in the face for a 
sans pouvoir la reconnaitre, long time, but could not recognize 

him (or her). 

899. Flairer, Fleurer. 

Flairer means to inhale through the nose, to smell : it is used in 
speaking of animated beings. 

Fleurer signifies to spread or produce an odor or smell. It is said 
of persons and things. 

Ex.: 

Flairez cette rose, Smell that rose. 

Cela fleure bon, That smells good. 

Le chien flaire le gibier, The dog smelU the game. 

Remark. — Sentir, to smell, is generally used in such cases. The 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 415 

use of flairer modifies the meaning, as indicated in the following 
example : 

Sentez cette fleur, Smell that /lower 

Flairez cette fleur, Remark the peculiar smell of that flower. 

Sentir also expresses feeling, and may refer to either outward or 
inward sensations. 

900. Imaginer, S'Ihaginsb (782). 

Imaginer, creer, inventer, to imagine, to create, to invent. 
Ex.: 
On ne peut imaginer rien de plus ex- Nothing more extraordinary can be 
traordinaire, imagined. 

S'imaginer, croire, se persuader, to think o?ie's self, to believe, to 
persuade one's self. 

Ex.: 
II s'imagine etre un grand docteur, He thinks himself a great doctor. 

901. Imiter i/Exemple. 
Imiter Fexemple is used only when the meaning is to copy. 
Imiter un exemple d'gcriture, To copy a model of penmanship. 

In all other cases the proper expression is : suivre Pexemple, to 
follow the example. 
Suivre Fexemple de ses ancetres, To follow the example of our ancestors. 

Such is the practice of good writers, based on the general principles 
of grammar. 

902. Imposer, Ex Imposer. 
Imposer involves the idea of respect, consideration, or ascendency. \ 
Ex.: 

L'honnete homme qui dit franche- The honest man who candidly tells the 

ment la verite impose, truth commands respect. « 

Le fripon que cherche a se tirer d'af- The knave who seeks by lying to extri- 

faire par des mensonges en im- cate himself from difficulty, imposea 

pose, upon people. 

L'air compose d'un hypocrite en im- The composed looks of hypocrites de- 

pose, ceive. 

903. IXFECTER, IXFESTER. 

Infecter, to spread a bad smell, to propagate contagion, is used also 
figuratively. 

36 



416 GRAMMAR. 

Ex.: 

Ce marais infeete. That marsh infects or stinks. 

Ce navire venu d'Orient a infeete" le That ship from the East infected the 

pays, country. 

II infeete le pays de sa pernicieuse That man infects the country with his 

doctrine, pernicious doctrines. 

Infester, piller, ravager, to infest, to invade, to pillage, to sack. 

Ex.: 

Les pirates infestaient ces cotes, Those shores were infested by pirates. 

904. IxSULTER. 

Insulter quelqu'un, is to insult some one. 
Insulter quelqu'un de paroles, -To insult some one by words. 

Insulter a quelqu'un, insulter a. quelque chose, denote a want of 

respect for persons or things. 

Ex. : 

II nefaut pas insulter aux nialheureux, We must not insult misfortune, nor 
ni insulter a la niisere, au bon- rail at poverty, good sense, or good 

sens, au bon-gout, taste. 

905. Joixdre. 
Joindre when it means aj outer, to add, requires a. 
Joignez cette maison a la votre, Join this house to yourt. 

With the signification of unir, allier, to join, to blend, it takes either 

a or avec (936 bis). 

Ex.: 

Joindre la modestie au nitrite, ou avec Uniting modesty and merit. 
le merite, 

It also has the meanings of to connect, to catch. 

Joindre TOcean a la Mediterranee, To jointhe ocean with the Mediterranean. 
Joindre ou atteindre la fortune, To reach or attain fortune. 

906. Le. 

The use made of the pronoun le in the following sentence is an 
incorrect one : 

On ne de*truit pas les abus comnie ils devraient Pefcap. 

In general, pronouns must be connected with words previously 
expressed (618). Here the pronoun le has for its antecedent the past 
participle dttruit. understood. Grammatical accuracy requires the 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 417 

dropping of the pronoun, and enunciation of the participle under- 
stood. 

When under the government of active or neuter verbs, or with etre, 
as used in the following sentences, it is preferable to express the 
pronoun le, him, her, it, in English. 

It would be un grammatical to say : 

II a 6te* recu comme il me*ritait. 
II n'etst pas aussi instruit que je croyais. 
Elle est plus modeste qu'elle ne parait. 
lis sont moins riches qu'ils n'etaient. 

Say, using le (789) : 

II a 6te recu comme il le meritait, He has been received as he deserved, 

II n'est pas aussi instruit que je le He is not so learned as I thought, 

croyais, 

Elle est plus modeste qu'elle lie le She is more modest than she appears, 

parait, 

lis sont moins riches qu'ilsne Z'etaient, They are less rich than they were. 

The above sentences are elliptical in English ; le, in French, an- 
swering to the ellipsis, in the first, of to be received; in the second, 
he was learned ; in the third, to be modest ; in the fourth, rich, 

QUESTIONS. 

883. Quel est le choix a faire entre les expressions de loin en loin, 
ou de loin a loin? 884. Est-il indispensable d' employer la preposi- 
tion a apres les adverbes demain, hierf 885. Indiquez-nous les divers 
emplois des adjectifs qualificatifs dignc, indigne t 886. Quelle est la 
nature du verbe disputer quand il signifie de'battre, se quereller ? 887. 
Quelle est la distinction a faire entre durant et pendant f 888. Quelles 
sont les significations des mots Eminent et imminent ? 889. Quelles 
prepositions eniploie-t-on avec le verbe emprunter? 890. Quelle est 
la difference de signification entre ennuyant et ennuyeux t 891. Quelle 
est celle entre entendre raillerie et entendre la raillerie ? 892. Quand 
emploie-t-on envier, et quand faut-il substituer a ce verbe Fexpression 
porter envie? 893. Qu'avez-vous a dire sur Femploi des verbes 
espirer, promettre, compter? 894. Quels sont les divers emplois de la 
conjonction et? 895. Peut-on employer je fus pour fallai ? 896. 
Quelle est la signification du verbe iviter, et peut-on le remplacer par 
le verbe ipargner ? 897. Faites-nous connaitre les observations sur 
le verbe faire ? 898. Quel est le faux emploi fait du verbe fixer ? 
899. Quelles sont les significations defiairer etfieurer? 900. Indiquez 
la distinction qu'il faut 6tablir entre imaginer et sHmaginer? 901. 



418 GRAMMAR. 

Quel est le cas ou l'on se sert du verbe imiter, et quels sont les autres 
qui rejettent Pemploi dece verbe? 902. Etablissez la distinction 
entre imposer et enimposer? 903. Quels sont les emplois des verbes 
infecter et in/ester ? 904. Faites la distinction entre insulter quel- 
qu y un et insulter d quelqu'un ou d quelque chose? 905. Quand faut-il 
employer la proposition d ou avec conjointement avec le Yerbejoindre ? 
906. Expliquez-nous quelques emplois du prpnom le? 

90T. Lire. 
Lire sur is used in connection with the outside or surface of 
things (77, 92). 

Ex.: 

Lire sur une enseigne, sur un mur, To read on a sign, on a wall. 

Lire sur un tombeau, sur une carte, To read on a grave, on a map. 
Lire sur le visage de quelqu'un, To read on somebody's face. 

Lire dans is used when the interior is meant, in the case of either 

persons or things. 

Ex.: 

Lire dans la pensSe, dans le coeur, To read in the mind, in the heart. 

Lire dans un journal, dans un livre, To read in a newspaper, in a book. 
Lire dans les yeux de quelqu'un, To read in one's eyes. 

90S. Matinal, Matineux. 
Maiinal is applied to those who occasionally rise early. 
Vous §tes bien matinal aujourd'hui, You are an early riser to-day. 

Matineux, to those who habitually rise early. 

Les gens-du-monde ne sont pas mati- Fashionable people are not early risert 
neux, 

Matinier signifies belonging to the morning. 
L'Stoile matiniere, The morning star. 

909. M^LER. 
Meier avec, to mix things together (1177). 

Ex.: 

M61er Teau avec le vin, To mix water and wine. 

Meier de Tor avec de Targent, To mix gold and silver. 

Meier a, to join to, to possess, to unite with. 

Meier la douceur a la s6v§rit6, Uniting goodness and severity. 

Meier TagrSable a Tutile, To possess the agreeable and the useful. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 419 

910. Observer. 

Observer means to remark, to consider, to observe, to follow, to 
respect. 

Observer les astres, To observe the heavenly bodies. 

Observer les lois, To respect or follow the laws. 

Observer les hommes, To consider mankind, or study man- 

kind. 

We cannot sap in French: "Je vous remarque que, je remarque d 
VassembUe que;" and, on the same principle, it is not allowable to say: 
" Je vous observe que, j'observe a TassemblSe que." 

In French, in such cases, contrary to the English construction, we 
should say : 

Je vous fais observer que, I observe or bring to your notice. 

Je fais observer a, Fassemblee que, I call the attention of the assembly to, 

etc., etc. 

Nous lui faisons observer que, We want Mm to remark that; 

just as we say: " Je vous fais remarquer que; Je fais remarquer a 
l'assembl6e que." 

911. Ou. 

This conjunction should never be used to connect two propositions 
of which the one is negative and the other affirmative (478), as in 
this incorrect example: "Des pays qui ont 6te" point ou mal dScrits," 
which should be : 

Des pays qui n'ont pas ete decrits, ou Countries not described at all, or badly 
qui Font ete mal, described. 

912. Ou, ou Que. 

After substantives expressing ideas of time, either the adverb oil 9 
or the conjunction que, answering to at or when, may be employed. 

A Finstant ou il entra, ou qu'il entra, At the moment he came in. 
A l^poque" ou eut lieu la paix, ou When peace was made. 
qu'eut lieu la paix, 

913* OUBLIER A, OUBLIER DE. 

Oublier d lire, d 6crire, is to forget how to read or write. 

Oublier de lire, oublier cZ'ecrire, signifies merely to forget for 

once to read or write. 

Si chaque jour vous oublie*z de lire, If every day you forget to read you 
vous finirez par oublier d lire, will certainly forget how to read. 

36* 



420 GRAMMAR. 

914* Participer a, Participer de. 

Participer d, avoir part a, to have a share, to partake, etc., like 
neuter verbs, always take indirect complements or objects (87). 

Participer a la faveur des grands, To share the favor of the great. 

Participer a une conjuration, To have hand in a plot. 

Participer a une noce, To take part in a wedding. 

Participer de, is to inherit from nature or progenitors, to partake 
of the nature of, to be akin to (1060 bis). 

Le mulet participe de Tane et du Mules partake of the nature of the horse 
cheval, and the ass. 

915. Plaindre. 

Se plaindre de ce que, se plaindre que, followed by verbs in the 
present indicative, indicate a cause for complaint, a reason. 

II a raison de se plaindre de ce que He is right in complaining that you 
(ou que) vous Tavez trompe, deceived him. 

With the subjunctive, se plaindre que does not express any cause 
of grief. 

II a tort de se plaindre que vous Payez He is wrong in complaining that you 
trompS, deceived him. 

916. Plaire. 
Ce qui plait, what is agreeable; ce qu'il plait, whatever one pleases. 

Les insenses sacrifient leur intent a Foolish men sacrifice their interest to 
ce qui leur plait, what pleases them. 

Les gens d'un caractere opiniatre ne Stubborn men do whatever pleases them. 
veulent faire que ce qui leur plait, 

91V. Plier, Plover. 

Plier means to fold. 
Plier du linge, une lettre, un paquet, To fold linen, a letter, a bundle. 

Ployer signifies to bend, to curb. 
Ployer une branche d'arbre, To bend the limb of a tree. 

In the figurative style, both are used with the meaning of assu- 
jettir, soumettre, to subject, to conquer, to overcome. 

Tu dois a ton Stat plier ton caractere, You owe it to your position to curb 

your temper. 
C'est lui qui devant moi refusait de It is he wfro refused to yield before me, 

ployer, 
Ployone-nous devant la n$cessite\ Let us bow to necessity. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 421 

918. Pres de, Pret a. 

Pres de, a prepositive expression, answering to sur le point de, a la 
veille, on the point, on the verge, near, etc., precedes indirect objects 
(413, 823, 1085). 

Les beaux jours sont pres de finir, The fine days are nearly over. 

Pret a, ready for, adjective, must agree in gender and number 
with the substantives which it qualifies. 

L'ignorance est toujours prete a s'ad- Ignorance is always ready to praise 

mirer, itself. 

Un sot est toujours pret a parler, A fool is always ready to speak. 

Les orgueilleux sont toujours prets & The proud are always ready to exalt 

&' elever, themselves. 

Therefore : 

Pres de mourir, Near death, 

Pret a mourir, Heady to die, 

in either French or English, convey very different ideas. 

919. Plus, Mieux. 

Plus, more, indicates extension; mieux, better, perfection or supe- 
riority. 

L'abbe Prevost a plus ecrit que The Abbe Prevost has written more 
Fenelon, mais FSnelon a mieux than Fenelon, but Fenelon icrote 

Scrit que l'abbe Prevost, better than Prevost. 

Used as an adverb of quantity, plus requires de before substantives 
following it (400). 

Ce livre coute plus de six francs, That book costs more than six francs. 

Nous avons fait plus de dix lieues, We have made more than ten leagues. 

II vous faut plus de courage, You need more courage. 

Moins signifying less, takes also the preposition de. 
Ce livre coute moins de six francs, That book costs less than six francs. 

In either case it would be incorrect to use que instead of de, saying: 

Ce livre coute plus que six francs : nous avons fait plus que dix lieues ; ce 
livre coute moins que six francs. 

The conjunction que is used in negative sentences, whether the 
above adverbs be present or not (847). 

Ce livre ne coute que six francs, That book costs but six francs. 

I 

On the same principle we say : 



422 



GRAMMAR. 



II est plus d'& demi-mort, He is more than half dead, 

Du vin plus rf'a deini-bu, Wine more than half drank, 

De l'argent plus d'a, demi-d6pens6 Money more than half spent, 
(564), 

because, followed by the preposition de, the adverb plus, in Trench, 
answers to the adverb nearly, or the expression more than, in Eng- 
lish (411). 

Therefore do not say : J'ai recju mieux de cent francs, il a re<ju 
mieux de mille francs, instead of: 

J'ai recu plus de cent francs, I received over one hundred francs. 

II a recu plus de mille francs, He received over a thousand francs. 

When used in comparisons, plus de, moins de, answer to more than, 

less than, in English (411). 
I 

920. Plus d'un. 

Plus d'un, more than one, requires verbs following it to be in the 
singular. 

Plus d'un poete a traite* ce sujet, More than one poet has treated on that 

subject. 
Plus d'une Penelope honora son pays, More than one Penelope shed honor on 

her country. 

The same ideas might be expressed in either language, with sub- 
jects and verbs in the plural, using plusieurs, several, in the place 
of plus d f un. 

Plusieurs poetes ont traite* ce sujet, Several poets treated on that subject. 

Plusieurs Penelope honorerent leurs Several Penelopes shed honor on their 
pays, country. 

Where verbs express reciprocity, the plural number should be used 
(674). 

Plus d'un fripon se dupent l'un P autre, Bogxies deceive each other. 

921. Se Rappeler, Se Souvenir. 

Formed from the active verb rappeler (77), to remember, se rappeler 
requires a direct complement, the pronouns se, d lui, a elle, a eux, 
being indirect objects (74). Se souvenir, to remember, being essen- 
tially reflective (96), having the personal pronoun se, lui, eux, as 
direct object (73), takes indirect complements. 

Je me rappelle cette avanture, je me 

la rappelle parfaitement, / remember that adventure, I re- 

Je me souviens de cette avanture, je member it perfectly. 

m'«n souviens parfaitement, 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 423 

We could not say, in French : 

Je me rappelle de cette avanture, je m'en rappelle parfaitement, 
or, Je me souviens cette avanture, je me la souviens parfaitement, 

because se rappeler, in that case, would have two indirect objects, 
me, a moi, — de cette avanture; se souvenir, on the contrary, two direct 
ones, me answering to moi, — cette avanture. 

Remark. — Before infinitives, the pronominal verb se rappeler takes 
the preposition de, — viz.: adopts indirect complements. 

Je me rappelle d'etre sorti, cT avoir vu, / remember having gone out, seeing. 

The construction here is the same as in the sentence je d6sire de 
vous parler, where the preposition de is used to please the ear (762). 
De, therefore, is euphonic in such cases. 

922. Rapport. 

Avoir rapport a, conveys the idea of relation or connection. 

tes effets ont rapport aux causes. Effects are connected icith causes. 

Toutes les sciences ont rapport les The sciences are all connected with each 

unes aux autres, other. 

La paresse a rapport a tous les vices, Laziness has a relationship with every 

other vice. 

Avoir rapport avec indicates analogy or resemblance (879). 

Nos plus belles tragedies ont beaucoup Our best tragedies have much in common 
de rapport avec celles des Grecs, with those of the Greeks. 

923. Retraxcher de, Retraxcher a. 

Retrancher de, is to take a part from a ichole. 
Retrancher un couplet d'une chanson, To omit a stanza in a song. 

Retrancher a, is to deprive of something. 
Retrancher le vin a un malade (763), To refuse wine to a sick person, 

924. Reuxir, Joixdre, Uxir. 

"When rSunir conveys the idea of the possession of a quality simul- 
taneously with others, it requires et, with, to express addition (836). 

Reunir le merite et la modestie, To unite merit with modesty. 

Joindre renders the use of the conjunction needless; the idea of 
addition being in the verb when used in such an acceptation (905). 



424 GRAMMAR. 

Joindre le m6rite a la modestie, To join merit and modesty. 

Unir also takes the preposition d. 
Unir Fhonneur a la gloire, To unite honor and glory. 

925. Rien. 

Rien, meaning quelque chose, something, any thing, is used with- 
out negations (516). 

Y-a-t-il rien de plus rare qu'un demi- Is any thing rarer than modesty in a 
savant modeste ? half-learned man ? 

Rien answering to nothing requires negations (401). 

Remords, crainte, perils, rien ne m'a Bemorse, fear, danger, nothing re- 
retenu, strained me. 

Placed before substantives used indeterminately, or after verbs 
used affirmatively, the preposition sans, answering to without, denotes 
non-possession. 

Sans force, sans courage, sans vie, Without strength, without courage, toith- 

out life. 
Vous soumettrez-vous sans mot dire a Will you submit without a word to such 
de telles lois ? laws ? 

It is placed before determinate or qualified substantives. 

Sans 1' argent, sans sa patience, sans Without the money, without his patience, 
cette chose, without that thing. 

Sans sa grande moderation il se fut Without his great moderation he would 
perdu, have been lost. 

For sans, as we have seen, may be substituted the conjunction ni, 
(839). 

Answering to unquestionably, sans doute is an invariable expres- 
sion, ellipsis of sans aucun doute (598). 

Connected with verbs conjugated negatively, the preposition sans 
expresses possession by means of complements (414). 

Nous ne viendrons pas sans motifs, We will not come without a cause. 

Nous ne partirons pas sans Targent We will not leave without the money 
promis, promised. 

Connected with infinitives, it nullifies the action of the verbs which 
it precedes. 

Sans aller, sans venir, sans partir, Without going, without coming, without 

setting out. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 425 

926. Saigner. 

Saigner du nez, to bleed at the nose, is used in both a literal and 
a figurative sense in French. 

Le nez lui saigne, may signify: his nose bleeds, or he lacks courage. 
Saigner au nez is not a correct expression (1132). 
Speaking of persons, rire au nez is to laugh in the face. 

S'il se plaint on lui rira au nez, Should he complain, they will laugh in 

his face. 

92'7. Second, Deuxieme. 

Second conveys the idea of order or rank (957) ; deuxieme, that 
of a series or of continuation ; both answer to second in English. 
Therefore, of works consisting of but two volumes, we would say : 

Le second tome de l'ouvrage, The second volume of the work, 

the idea of succession being independent of that of number. Speak- 
ing of such a work, we* could not say : le deuxilme tome, because the 
determinative adjective deuxihne conveys the idea of continuation, 
inadmissible in such a case. 

QUESTIONS. 

907. Montrez-nous la difference entre lire sur et lire dans? 908. 
Faites-nous connaitre Tacception de chacun de ces trois mots, matinal, 
matineux et matinier? 909. Que signifient les expressions miler d 
et mMer avect 910. Quelles sont les remarques a faire sur le verbe 
observer? 911. Quels sont les emplois de la conjonction ou? 912. 
Dans quel cas peut-on 6galement employer Tadverbe ou ou la con- 
jonction que? 913. Faites-nous connaitre la difference entre oublier 
d et oublier de? 914. Que signifie par ticiper d, etparticiper de? 915. 
Comment emi)loie-t-on les locutions se plaindre de ce que, ou se 
plaindre que? 916. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur le verbe 
plaire? 917. Quelle difference 6tablissez-vous entre plier et ployer? 
918. Montrez-nous la signification de prhs de etprit d? 919. Qu'in- 
diquent les adverbes plus et mieux? 920. Quelle est la syntaxe 
He plus d'un? 921. Faites-nous connaitre Pemploi des verbes se rap- 
peler, se souvenir? 922. Quelle difference faut-il 6tablir entre les 
expressions avoir rapport d et avoir rapport avec? 923. Quelles pre- 
positions exige le verbe retrancher? 924. Comment emploie-t-on 
riunir et unir ? 925. Dans quel cas emploie-t-on rien avec ou sana 



426 GRAMMAR. 

negation? 926. Quelles sont les aceeptions de ^expression franchise 
saigner du nez? 927. Quelle distinction etablissez-vous entre second 
et deuxihne en Francois? 

92S. Servir a Risk, Servir de Rie>\ 

Servir a rien denotes a momentary absence of usefulness, in some- 
thing possessed. 

II a des talents qui ne lui servent d He has talents ichich are of no use to 
rien maintenant, him now. 

Servir de rien denotes absolute uselessness, of no avail, to ?io pur- 
pose, in English. 

Les murmures centre les decrets de Murmurs against the decrees of Prori- 
la Providence ne servent de rien. dence are of no avail. 

929. S'Occuper. 

S'occuper de quelque chose, to think much of something, to seek 
means of success, to busy one's self. • 

II s'occupe de son jardin. He thinks of his garden, 

lis s'occupent des moyens de faire They seek the means to acquire a fortune. 
fortune, 

S'occuper a quelque chose, means to perform one thing, to work 

at it. 

II s'occupe a son jardin. He works at his garden. 

Elle s'occupe a lire et a £crire, Reading and writing form her occupa- 

tion. 
Xous nous occupons a les instruire, We employ ourselves in instructing them* 

930. Sou, Son QUE. 

These conjunctions must be repeated, or replaced by ou (848). 

Soit bonte" soit faiblesse. ) -«-* j 7 

.. , ., - .,, \ Either qoodness or weakness, 

ou so\t bonte ou faiolesse. i 9 

Soit qu'il parte *oit qu'il reste. ) tvt,„+x„„ j,* „„ ao n ~ ,.o«„;„. 

1 F ... ~? ... > Whether he qoes or remains, 

ou sort qu ll parte ou qu ll reste, J * 

AVe should never say : soit bonte* ou soit faiblesse, soit qu'il parte ou 
soit qu'il reste: ou here constituting a vicious pleonasm (856). 
I dit en passant, answers to the expression by-the-by. 

Soit dit entre nous, between ourselves. 

Ainsi soit-il. be it so. amen. 

When height, length, and breadth, or thickness, are enumerated, the 
-words by, and, in English, are rendered in French by the preposi- 
tion 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 427 

Vingtpieds de long sur dix de large, et Twenty feet long by ten broad and six 
six de haut, high. 

This sentence is elliptical, being equivalent to (854) : 

Vingt pieds de long, sur dix pieds de large, et six pieds de haut. 

931. SUCCOMBER. 

Succomber sous is to bend under, to give up, to sink under. 

Succomber sous le poids du travail, To sink under the weight of labor. 

Succomber sous les coups, To fall under blows. 

Succomber sous F affliction, To bend under sorrow or sink in afflic- 

tion. 

It is with this figurative meaning (853) that we say: 

Succomber sous le faix des affaires, To sink under the load of business. 

Succomber sous le fardeau du travail, To sink under the burden of labor. 
Succomber sous le poids de la douleur, To fall under the pressure of sorrow. 

Succomber means to give way, to fall in, when moral resistance is 
exhausted. 

Succomber a la tentation, To fall into temptation. 

Succomber a l'attrait seduisant du To yield to the seductive attractions of 

vice, • vice. 

Succomber a la douleur, To sink under sorrow. 

932, Suppleer. 

Supplier quelqiie chose is to supply the place of what is wanted by 
something of the same nature. 

Ce sac doit contenir niille francs ; s'il That bag must contain a thousand 
y a cent francs de moins je les francs ; should it be short by one 

suppleserai, hundred, I will make up the defi- 

ciency. 

In the same sense we say : suppleer un mot, substitute a word of 
the same meaning. Suppleer a quelque chose, is to substitute some- 
thing else for it. 
La valeur supplee au nombre, Courage makes up for number. 

Therefore we must say : supplier quelqu'un, and not supplier k 
quelqu'un. 

Suppliant is a substitute in office, having to perform the same 
functionary duties as the incumbent. 

Suppliment is said of things. It signifies an increase on a given 
quantity. 

Yous aurez quatre onces de pain pour You will have an increase of four 
supplement, ounces of bread. 

37 



428 GRAMMAR. 

933. Temoin. 

When used determinately, — viz. : preceded by the forms of the 

article or by determinative adjectives, — it is a substantive with but 

one form for the two genders (330, 346). 

Un faux temoin cache la v6rit6, A false witness conceals the truth. 

Le temoin que vous produisez est faux, The witness you produce is a false one. 

Ce temoin en impose a la justice (902), That witness deceives the judges. 

When qualifying substantives it is an adjective, agreeing with the 
substantives in number : 

Cette femme est temoin dans cette That ivoman is a witness in that affair. 

affaire, 

Cet enfant est aussi temoin, That child is also a witness. 

Ces hommes sont temoins contre lui, Those men are evidence against him. 

Accordingly, the expression pour temoin is variable as to number 
only, temoin having but one form for gender (346). 

Madame, je vous prends pour temoin, Madam, I take you as a witness. 
Messieurs, je vous recuse pour temoins, Gentlemen, I recuse you as evidence. 

A temoin is an adverbial expression, and consequently invariable. 
When placed at the beginning of parts of sentences, the word temoin, 
witness, remains also unchangeable for number, as it is for gender. 

Je prends le ciel et les hommes & te- I take heaven and earth to witness. 

moin, 
Napoleon etait un grand capitaine j Napoleon was a great captain ; witness 

temoin les victoires qu'il a rem- the victories he won. 

portees, 

Temoignage, answering to justiciary evidence, may also correspond 
with the English words token, proof. 

Le temoignage de cet honime est sus- The evidence of that man is suspicious. 

pect, 

Ce jugement est un temoignage de la That judgment is a proof of integrity 

justice de ce magistrat, in that magistrate. 



934. Par Terre, A Terre. 

Par terre is said of what touches the ground, a terre of what does 

not touch it. 

Un arbre tombe par terre, et ses fruits A tree falls on the ground, and its fruit 
tombent d terre, to the ground. 

The difference between par and a in French is indicated in the 
English sentence, the fall of the tree and that of the fruit requiring 
different prepositions, in both languages. 






PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 429 

According to the above distinction, we must say : 

Ccs enfants sont tombes par terre, Those children fell on the ground. 

La pluie tombe a terre par torrents, Bain falls in torrents to the earth. 

935. Tout. 

On this word we may make several observations ^606). 

1st. Followed immediately by the adjective mitre and a substan- 
tive, tout is an adjective or an adverb. When the meaning allows 
the placing of autre after the substantive, tout is an adjective and 
subject to agreement. 

Donnez-moi toute autre occupation, Let me have any other occupation. 

Toute autre place qu'un trdne eut £te Any other place than a throne would 

indigne d'elle, have been unworthy of her. 

Tout autre travail Feut fatigue, Any other work had tired him. 

Because it might be said : 

Donnez-moi toute occupation autre. 

Toute place autre qu'un trone eut ete indigne d'elle. 

Un travail tout autre l'eut fatigue. 

When the meaning does not allow the use of the indefinite adjective 
(370) autre after substantives, tout becomes an adverb, and is con- 
sequently invariable (390, 568). 

Donnez-moi une tout autre occupation, Give me another occupation. 

Une tout autre place qu'un trone eut Another place than a throne had been 

ete indigne d'elle, beneath her. 

Un tout autre travail l'eut fatigue, Another toork had tired him. 

Tout in that case modifies the adjective autre (331), and is pre- 
ceded by the numeral adjective un, une. 

Remark. — In the first examples tout answers to any, in the second 
it signifies another in English. 

2d. Followed immediately by substantives used indeterminately, 
whether preceded or not by prepositions, when equivalent to single 
adjectives (328), tout also becomes an adverb. 

Cette maison est tout en flamme, That house is in a blaze, 

lie chien est tout ardeur, The dog is all fire, 

answering to : 

Cette maison est tout enflammee, le chien est tout ardent, 

where the word tout modifies adjectives (607). 
Accordingly, we will say : 

Cette per sonne est tout feu, tout en That person is all fire, full of anger, 
colere, tout en pleurs, all tears. 



430 GRAMMAR. 

Les Francais sont tout feu, Frenchmen are all fire. 

Cctte femme est tout 3 r eux, tout That woman is all eyes, all ears. 

oreilles, , 

Tin merinos tout laine, A merino all wool. 

line Stoffe tout soie, A stuff all silk. 

In sentences like these : 

Sortir & tout moment, on sortir a tons To go out at every moment, 
moments (354), 

when the idea is distributive, namely, when tout answers to chaque, 
every, in English, the singular form is used. 

>. 

A tout moment, At every moment. 

De tout cot6, From every side. • 

De toute sorte, Of every hind. 

When the idea is collective, tout is used in the plural, and answers 
to all in English. 

A tous moments, At all moments. 

De tous cotes, From all sides. 

De toutes sortes, • Of all kinds. 

3d. Equally agreeing with the thought, the distributive or collective 
idea in many cases cannot easily be recognized : whence it follows 
that singular or plural forms may be used with equal propriety. 

According to Academical authority, we may say : 

A tout moment, de toute part, de toute At every moment, from any side, of 

v sorte, any kind, 

or, A tous moments, de toutes parts, or, At all moments, from all sides, of 
de toutes sortes, all kinds. 

A tout bout-de-champ, answering to at every moment, is an ad- 
verbial expression in French. 

4th. Tout requires the indicative mode for verbs following it, though 
such verbs be preceded by que. 

Tout instruit qu'il est, Learned as he is, 

avoiding the vicious expression : tout instruit qu'il soit. In that case, 
to use the subjunctive mode correctly, we must omit tout and sub- 
stitute for it quelque to express doubt. 
Quelque instruit qu'il soit, answering to However learned he may be. 

936. Tous LES DEUX, Tous DEUX. 
Tous les deux answers in French to Fun et r autre ; tous deux to 
Tun, avec T autre, both at the same time. 



PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS. 431 

Corneille et Racine ont fait tous les Corneille and Racine (each) have made 
deux des tragedies admirables, admirable tragedies. 

Adam et Eve marchaient tous deux en Adam and Eve were walking hand in 
se donnant la main, hand. 

The expressions tous les trois, tous les quatre, etc., also come 
under the foregoing rule, answering to tliree, four together, etc. 

In the preceding examples, Vun et V autre is used with reference 
to actions performed separately; Vun V autre refers to simultaneous 
actions performed in conjunction with other persons. 

936 bis. Unir. 

This verb takes a or avec when signifying, joindre deux choses 
ensemble, to connect or join two things (905, 1137). 

Unir une chose a une autre, on avec To join one thing to another. 
une autre, 

Answering to with, in English, the preposition a is more frequently 
used in French (864). 

Unir un mot a un autre, To join one word with another. 

Unir T Ocean a la Mediterranee, To connect the ocean with the Mediter- 

ranean. 
Unir l'audace a la force, To unite audacity with strength. 

937. Un de, Uh des. 

After the expressions un de, an des', verbs must be in the singular 
or plural. 

In the singular, when the actions expressed by verbs are performed 
by single agents. 

C'est un de mes fils qui m'ecrit, It is one of my sons who writes to me. 

C'est un des generaux Francais qui One of the French generals will come. 

viendra, 

C'est une d'elles qui parlera, One of the two will speak. 

Here the acts of writing, coming, and speaking are performed by 
single persons. When those actions are performed by several agents, 
though separately at different epochs, the verbs must be used in 
the plural. 

Charlemagne est un des plus grands Charlemagne is one of the greatest 
rois qui aient regne, monarchs who ever ascended a 

throne. 

L'intemperance est un des vices qui Of all vices, intemperance is the most 
dStruisent la sante, prejudicial to health. 

In these examples, the act of governing has been previously per- 



432 GRAMMAR. 

formed by several monarchs ; the act of destroying, by other vices 

than intemperance. 

The preceding rule applies also to participles. 

C'est un de mes fils que vous avez vu, It is one of my sons you saio. 
C'est un des plus belles tragedies que It is one of the finest tragedies we ever 
nous ayons vues, saw. 

937 bis^VENIMEUX, Veneneux. 
Said of animals, v6nimeux answers to venomous. 
La vipere est vSnimeuse. 

Answering to poisonous, v&ie'neux is said of plants. 
La cigue est vengneuse (440), Hemlock is poisonous. 

938. Y (397). 
Y always refers to an antecedent. 

Pensiez-vous a cela? J'y pensais, Did you think of that? I did. 

Songez-vous a Dieu? En ce moment Do you think of God ? At this moment 
j'y songe, / do. 

Consequently, closing the eyes or speaking of a blind person, we 
must not say : 

Je n'y vois goutte. On dirait que vous n'y voyez pas clair. L'amour est un 
dieu qui n'y voit goutte. 

Adding nothing to the signification, the personal pronoun y (374) 
is perfectly useless in those sentences. Grammatical correctness 
requires the dropping of y. Therefore say: 

Je ne vois goutte, / see nothing. 

Vous ne voyez pas clair, You do not see clearly. 

L'amour est un dieu qui ne voit goutte, Love is a blind divinity. 

Yet we might say, with reference to an antecedent: 

Ce raisonnement est si obscur qu'on That argumentation is so dark that 
n'y voit goutte, tee cannot see through it. 



QUESTIONS. 

928. Quelle distinction faut-il faire entre servir a rien et servir de 
rien? 929. Quelle faut-il faire aussi entre s'occuper de et s'occupera? 
930. Comment emploie-t-on soit, soit que? 931. Quelle est la significa- 
tion de succomberf 932. Quelle est celle de supplier? 933. Quelle est 
la syntaxe du mot Umoin? 934. Quand faut-il employer Texpression 
par terrc on a ierro? 935. Quelle* sont I^k observations a faire sur 



PUNCTUATION. 433 

tout? 936. Quelle difference etablissez-vous entre les expressions tous 
Us deux ou tous deux? 936 bis. Comment emploie-t-on unir quand il 
signifie joindre deux cJioses ensemble? 937. Comment emploie-t-on 
les verbes precedes des mots un de, un des? 937 bis. Quelle est la 
difference a faire entre les adjectifs vinimeux et vintneux? 938. 
Indiquez les emplois du pronom yf 



CHAPTER SIXTEENTH. 

Punctuation. 

939. Punctuation indicates the pauses to be observed in reading 
(985), and assists in the apprehension of the sense in writing. 

940. The signs of punctuation are — 



La virgule, 


9 


The Comma, 


Le point-yirgule, 


9 


The Semicolon, 


Les deux points, 


: 


The Colon, 


Le point, 


. 


The Period, or Full Point. 


Le point interrogatif, 


* 


The Mark of Interrogation. 


Le point exclamatif, 


? 


The Mark of Exclamation. 



In both languages, the comma (,) is required: 

941. (1.) To separate the similar parts of propositions (453). 
Viz. : subjects, attributes, or complements of the same nature (457, 

459, 461). 

La fraude, les parjures, les proces, les Fraud, perjury, suits, wars, never lift 

guerres, ne font jamais entendre up their voices in that place beloved 

leurs voix dans ce sejour cheri of the gods. 

des dieux, 

Les Tyriens sont industrieux, patients, The Tyrians are industrious, patient, 

laborieux, laborious. 

H faut regler ses gouts, ses travaux, We must regulate our tastes, occupa- 

ses plaisirs, tions, and pleasures. 

942. Exception. — When two similar parts of a proposition are 
connected by one of the conjunctions et, ou, ni, or when both may be 
enunciated without taking breath, the comma is not needed. 

Je lirai ou j'ecrirai, / will read or icrite. 

II n'a pas re$u votre lettre ni la He has not received your letter nor 
mienne, mine 



434 GRAMMAR. 

Nevertheless, we will separate the following, clauses by means of 
the comma : 

Tout reconrfait ses lois, ou brigue son Every thing recognizes liis laws, or 
appui, seeks his protection. 

Kill n'est content de sa fortune, ni A r o one is satisfied with his fortune, or 
mecontent de son esprit, dissatisfied with his wit. 

Because, though united by ou, ni, those parts are too long to be 
enunciated without stopping for breath after the words lois, fortune. 

942 bis. (2.) To separate propositions of the same nature, and, 
when they are short, to distinguish one from the other (454). 

On se menace, on court, Tair gemit, They threaten each other, they run, the 
le fer brille, air groans, iceapons shine. 

943. (3.) Before and after words or combinations of words, which 
may be dropped without detriment to the meaning of sentences; 
such as incidental explanatory propositions (482), words in apostro- 
phe (451), or indirect complements (70) denoting circumstances not 
rigorously required by verbs. 

Les passions, qui sont les maladies de The passions, which are the diseases 

Tame, ne viennent que de notre of the soul, spring from our revolt 

revolte contre la raison, against reason. 

Sont-ce la, Telemaque, les pensees Are these, Telemachus, the thoughts 

qui doivent occuper le cceur du which should fill the heart of the 

fils d'Ulysse? , son of Ulysses? 

Le Bosphore m'a vu, par de nouveaux The Bosphorus has seen me, icith new 

apprets, ramener la terreur du prej^arations, bring back terror from 

fond de ses marais, the midst of its marshes. 

Le style de Bossuet, toujours noble et Always noble, rapid, the style of Bos- 

rapide, etonne et entraine, suet astonishes, enraptures. 

Without change of the meaning we might say: 

Les passions ne viennent que de notre revolte contre la raison. 
Sont-ce la les pensees qui doivent occuper le coeur du fils d'Ulysse? 
Le Bosphore m'a vu ramener la terreur du fond de ses marais. 
Le style de Bossuet etonne et entraine. 

944. (4.) Before verbs separated from their subject by incidental 
determinative propositions (481). 

L'homme,qui est insensible aux mal- The 7nan who is insensible to the mis- 
beurs de ses semblables, est un fortunes of his fellow -creatures is 

Sgoiste, an egotist. 

945. (5.) To take the place of verbs understood forming ellipsis 
(484). 



PUNCTUATION. 



435 



L'amour de la gloire meut les grandes 
ames, et l'ainour de 1' argent, les 
ames vulgaires, 



The love of glory animates noble souls, 
the love of money, vulgar ones. 



Standing for : " 1/ amour de la gloire meut les grandes limes, P amour 
de 1' argent meut les times vulgaires." In the incidental proposition, 
the comma takes the place of the verb meut. 

This rule holds good in both French and English. 



Semicolon (;). 

946. The semicolon is used: 

(1.) To separate from each other similar propositions whose extent 
is considerable (453). 



Soyez ici des lois l'interprete supreme; 

Rendez leur ministere aussi saint que 
vous-meme; 

Enseignez la raison, la justice ou la 
paix, 

II faut qu'en cent facons pour plaire 
il se replie; 

Que tantot il s'eleve, et tantot 
s'humilie: 

Qu'en noble sentiments il soit partout 
fecond, 

Qu'il soit aise, solide, agreable et pro- 
fond, 



Be here the supreme interpreter of laws ; 
render their ministry as holy as 
yourself; teach reason, justice and 
peace. 

In order to 'please, he [the poet] must 
bend himself in a hundred ways / 
sometimes exalting, sometimes hum- 
bling himself; fruitful in noble 
sentiments, unconstrained, solid, 
agreeable and profound. 



94'7. (2.) To separate in enumerations the various principal parts, 
when the subordinate or minor parts require the use of the comma. 

There are several kinds of style : the 
smooth style, in which occur no note- 
worthy expressions or thoughts ; the 
easy style, which shows no marks of 
labor ; the natural style, which is 
neither affected nor strained ; and 
the rapid style, which attracts and 
retains the attention. 



On distingue diverses sortes de style: 
le style uni, ou Ton ne voit ni ex- 
pressions ni pensees remarqua- 
bles : le style facile, qui ne sent pas 
le travail: le style naturel, qui 
n'est ni recherche ni force; le 
style rapide, qui attache et qui 
entraine, 



Colon (:). 

The colon is required: 

948. (1.) After a proposition introducing a quotation. 

Dames mites disaient a leurs petits Old gossips used to say to their little 

enfants: children: 

II futun temps ou la terre etaitronde, There was a time when the earth ivas 

round. 



436 



GRAMMAR. 



Tout plait dans les Synonymes de 
l'abbe Girard: la finesse des re- 
marques, la justesse des pensees, 
le choix des exeinples, 



Exercise, frugality, and labor are three 
unerring physicians. 



94S bis. (2.) After general propositions accompanied by details: 

In Abbe Girard* 8 Treatise on Synonyms 
every thing is pleasing: the deli- 
cacy of the remarks, the accuracy 
of the thoughts, the selection of ex- 
amples. 

Or before those propositions should they be preceded by details. 

I/exercice, la sobriete et le travail: 
voila trois mSdecins qui ne se 
trompent pas, 

949. (3.) Before propositions throwing light on or developing what 
precedes. 

II faut autant qu'on peut obliger tout As far as lies in our power toe must 

le rnonde: oblige others: 

On a souvent besoin d'un plus petit One has often need of those who arc 

que soi (635), less than himself. 

Period, Stop, or Point (.). 

950. The period is placed at the close of every independent sen- 
tence and separates it from those which follow, with which it has but 
a vague or general connection. 



La deesse tenait d'une main un sceptre 
d'or pour commander aux vagues. 
Elle avait un visage serein, et 
plein de majeste. Des tritons 
conduisaient son char. On voyait 
au milieu des airs Eole empresse 
et inquiet, 



The goddess had a golden sceptre with 
which to govern the waves. Her face 
was serene and full of majesty. 
Tritons led her car. Busy, fretful, 
Eolus was seen in the air. 



'• Marks of Interrogation and Exclamation (? !). 

951. Marks of interrogation are used to close sentences express- 
ing interrogations. 

Those of exclamation, to close sentences expressing surprise, terror, 
or emotions of the soul. 

Ou portai-je mes pas? d'ou vient que Whither do I go? Why do I shudder? 

je frissonne ? 

A tous les coeurs bien-nes que la How dear to every honest heart is the 

patrie est chere! native land! 

Que le Seigneur est bon ! que son joug How good is the Lord ! hoio gentle his 

est aimable ! yoke ! 

Heureux qui, des l'enfance, en connait Hapjyy those who from youth have 

la douceur ! known its sweetness ! 

952. Remark. — It is the thought intended to be expressed by 
them, not their construction, which renders sentences interrogative 
(621). 



PUNCTUATION. 437 

Therefore, in the following verses, though the construction is not 
interrogative in form, La Fontaine has used the mark of interrogation. 

Je porte a manger / carry something to eat 

A ceux qu'enclot la tombe noire. To those lying in the dark grave. 

Le mari repart, sans songer: Without thinking, the husband replies : 

Tu ne leur portes point a, boire? Dost thou take them nothing to drink? 

The sense of the last verse is evidently interrogative, ansvrering 
to est-ce que tu ne leur porte point a boire? Accordingly, without in- 
terrogative point vre will say : 

Lui fait-on quelques reproches, il Should you reproach him, he becomes 
s'emporte, angry. 

This sentence, though interrogative in construction, is not so in 
meaning, but corresponds with : "Si on lui fait quelques reproches, il 
s'emporte." . 

Promising to teach writing and French composition, some Methods 
have laid down no rules for punctuation. Such an omission must be 
looked upon as a proof of the insincerity of their promise, no kind 
of writing being tolerable without punctuation. It must be admitted, 
however, that with them the commonplace expressions which con- 
stitute their exercises are short practical views of this important part 
of grammar. When the object is to balbutiate a language, then, and 
then alone, may punctuation be dispensed with! 



QUESTIONS. 

939. Qu'est-ce que la ponctuation? 940. Quels sont les signes de 
la ponctuation? 941. Quel est le premier emploi de la virgule? 
942. Quelle est 1' exception a cet emploi? 942 bis. Quel est le second 
emploi de ce signe? 943. Quel est le troisieme emploi de ce signe? 
944. Quel en est le quatrieme? 945. Quel en est enfin le cinquieme? 
946. Quand emploie-t-on le point-virgule ? 947. Quel est le second 
emploi de ce signe? 948. Quel est le premier emploi des deux 
points ? 948 bis. Quel en est le second? 949. Y en a-t-il un troisieme? 
950. Qu'est-ce que la p6riode ou point? 951. Quel est Temploi des 
points d'interrogation et d'exclamation ? 952. Quelle remarque faut-il 
faire sur Pemploi du point d' interrogation? 



438 GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER SEVENTEENTH. 

Ox Pronunciation and Reading. 

The introduction of this chapter, at this part of our work, does 
not contradict what we have said in our preface on French pronun- 
ciation. We are not about to define sounds, but to indicate merely 
cases where some letters are or are not to be sounded ; or when cer- 
tain letters or combinations of letters have sounds practically known 
by learners. 

f Aout, August, 

953. , Aoriste, Aorist. 

A is not sounded in the words 1 Saone, Saone, a French river. 

[ Taon, Gddjly. 

954. Ai sounds like e in the present participle faisant, doing, or 
its derivative tense the imperfect of the indicative fa isait (116, 231). 
(Do not write those tenses as indicated in Pujol and Yan Xorman's 
Grammar, page 317: le gland ei la citrouUle.) Ai sounds like a in 
douairiere, dowager. 

955. The final n of an, in, on, or any nasal sound ending a 
word, is not connected with a vowel beginning the word immediately 
following, unless sense allows of a stop between the two words ; as, 
for instance : mon ami, certain auteur, on ignore. 

Yet without joining the consonant n with the vowel following it, 
we must say : mon cousin — est venu ; bon vin — a boire ; because the 
sense indicates a stop after the words cousin, bon (983). 

956. B final is pronounced in radoub, rumb, maritime terms. 

957. C does not sound in cotignac, estomac, lacs (nets), broc, eric, 
marc (weight), pore, tabac, but sounds in 6chec, Marc (a name), 
lac (lake), arc, tac, etc. 

In second, secondement, seconder, it has the sound of g ; also in 
the words secretaire, secretariat, seer6tavrerie, which are pronounced 
by some as if they were spelt segrttaire, segritariat, segr&airerie. 
In violoncelle, violoncello, it takes generally the sound of ch, on 
account of the Italian origin of the word. The same remark will 
apply to the word vermicelle, vermicelli. 



PRONUNCIATION AND READING. 439 

958. Ch sounds like k in cathecumene, Chersonese, chironiancie, 
cholera, Archelous, anachronisme, archonte, archange, 6cho, chaos, 
chronologie, Melchior, Nabuchodonosor, orchestre, archi^piscopal, 
patriarchal, St. Roch, Michel- Ange. 

Acheron is pronounced with the sound of ch in cher, sh in Eng- 
lish. 

958 bis. D at the end of words has the sound of t : grand homme, 
de fond en comble, are pronounced as if written gran tliomme, defon 
ten comble. 

959. E, pronounced closed in d^sir, desert (10), is mute in denier, 
degres, petillier, dangereux. It sounds like a in indeninite, indem- 
niser, solennel, henair ; like ax at the beginning of enivrer, enor- 
gueillir, ennui, ennuyer. 

960. F is not sounded in cerf, cerf-volant, clef, ceuf-frais, ceuf-dur, 
nerf de bceuf, boeuf-gras, nor in the plural substantives bceufs, ceufs, 
nerfs. 

It is sounded in serf, slave. 

961. G is pronounced like c at the beginning of gangrene, mor- 
tification. It is not sounded in faubourg, bourg, legs, signet, R6g- 
nard (a writer's name). 

G sounds like k before h mute. 

Sang humain, therefore, is pronounced: san kumain. It is mute 
in other cases : sang lache, sang gen6reux, sound : son lache, san 
g£n6reux. 

962. G> T is pronounced gue-n in Gnide, Progne, ign£, stagnant, 
stagnation, diagnostic, r6gnicole. Incognito is pronounced with the 
sound of gn in agneau. 

963. H is aspirate in the following words or the derivatives of the 
same: h&bleur, hache, hagard, haie, haillons, haine, hair, haire, 
Mller, halle, hallebarde, halte, hamac, hanche, hanneton, hauteur, 
haricots, harridelle, harnais, harangue, haras, harasser, harceler, 
harde, hardi, hareng, hargneux, harpe, harpie, harpon, hasard, hater, 
hausser, haut, haut-bois, havre-sac, hennir, heraut-d'armes, herisser, 
hetre, heurter, hibou, hideux, houpelande, hi6rarchie, homard, honte, 
horde, hotte, houille, houlette, houpe, houspiller, housse, huche, 
huees, huguenots, humer, hupe, hure, hurler, hussard (12). 

It is mute in Herault, the name of a river and of a southern de- 



440 GRAMMAR. 

partment of France: therefore say: le d6partement de VHe'raultj 
instead of du HSrault. 

Though aspirate in Hollande, Hongrie, h is mute in the following 
expressions : 

Fromage d'Hollande, toile d'Hollande, eau de la reine d J Hongrie. 

We must say : - Vh4roisme, VJifroxaue vertu, though that consonant 
is aspirate in faros. 

964. I is not sounded in oi'gnon, moignon, potgnard, poignee ; 
nor in Michel Montaigne, — pronounced Montague. 

965. L does not sound in baril, coutil, chenil, fusil, gril, nombril, 
outil, persil, soul (satiated), sourcil. Neither is it sounded in the 
adjective gentil, pretty, nor in gentils hommes, noblemen; yet it takes 
the liquid sound in the substantive gentil, gentile, pagan, or in the 
singular gentilhomme ; therefore say : un gentilhomme, des genti- 
shommes for des gentilshommes. 

966. M is not sounded in damner, condamner, automne, and their 
derivatives. 

96 1 ?. N is mute in Beam. It is pronounced with or without the 
nasal sound in the words examen, hymen, pollen, Philop6men. 

968. is not sounded in faon, Laon (town in France), paon, 
which sound Jan, Ian, pan, with a nasal sound. 

969. Oi is pronounced e in roide, stiff, except in exalted style, 

when it is sounded roade. 

Use the last sound in the expression " roide mort," and the first 
in the expression " roide de froid," sounded ride defroid. 

970. P is not sounded in dompter, prompt, bapteme, nor in their 
derivatives, except baptismal. It is mute in cep-de-vigne, sept, ex- 
empt, etc. 

971. Q is pronounced in coq, rooster, and mute in coq-d'Inde, 
turkey-cock. Preceding a vowel or h mute, it is sounded in cinq : cinq 
enfants, cinq hommes; or when cinq stands without substantives, 
ils 6taient cinq. 

Remark. — When sounded, q has the sound of k. 

9T&. Qu sounds like cou in equatique, Squateur, Equation, in- 



PRONUNCIATION AND READING. 441 

quarto, quadragSnaire, quadrageshne, quadrature, quadruple, qua- 
druple, quaker? 

It sounds like cu in quia (a Latin word, meaning in French to be 
at naught), equestre, equitation, liqu6fier, questeur, Quinte-Curse, 
Quintilien, quintuple, quirinal. 

973. R is sounded in mercredi, niger, or when ending present 
infinitives ; except in verbs of the first conjugation, when ft is 
sounded only before vowels or h mute. 

Consequently : aimer V etude is pronounced aime* V€tude, 

aimer a chanter " aimtra chanter. 

In infinitives of the second and third conjugation r is always 
sounded : 

Finir de chanter, recevoir des nouvelles. 

9T4. S is not sounded in Duguesclin, des que, tandis que, nor at 
the end of the words divers, avis, os, alors, moeurs, unless the follow- 
ing word begins with a vowel or h mute. It is silent in langouste, 
and in the plural form of the article les before onze, onzieme, ouate 
(313). Accordingly, pronounce: 

Alor sils envoyerent, moeur shonnetes, le onze, le ouates (590). 

It is sounded in aloes, bibus, blocus, chorus, cholera-morbus, 
dervis, flores (a Latin expression, answering to to gain repute), gratis, 
jadis, laps, mais, mars, oremus, ours, rebus, relaps, Rheims (where 
m sounds like n), Rubens, sinus, en sus, vasistas, or at the end of 
Talus only when Meotides follows it ; in other cases, Palus sounds 
Palu. It is sounded at the end of sens, sense; yet sens-commun is 
pronounced sen-commun. Jesus-Christ and Jesu-Christ are both 
employed ; un lis ou une fleur-de-li ; plus que, plus que parfait. In 
every other case say : plu. S is not sounded in est, is ; it sounds in 
Est, east. 

S is mute in discours, secours, recours, etc., except when plural 
cases are followed by words beginning with vowels or h mute, which 
are sounded : un discour agreable, des discour sagreables. 

On account of its origin, in Shakspeare sh sounds like ch. 

In registre s is not sounded : it is sounded in the derivative, regis- 
trateur, recorder. According to rule 434, it is better to write with 
the circumflex accent regitre, enr^gltrement. 

R61e, list, character, was formerly spelt rosle, — not roole, as stated 
in Pujol and Yan Norman's Grammar, p. 4-2, circumflex accent. 



» 



442 GRAMMAR. 

975. Between two vowels s sounds like z : dSsunir, pr£sumer, 
saisir, reservoir; except in desuetude, pusillanime* or a compound 
word in which the primitive word begins with s: pr6seance, prSsup- 
poser, desaisir, resaisir, parasol, soubresaut, etc. 

976. Where it is not written, s must not be sounded ; therefore, 
entre quatre-yeux must be pronounced entire qua tryeux, instead of 
entre quatre-s-yeux. These faults, the results of vicious practice, 
are very common among illiterate people. 

977. T final is sounded in aspect, brut, circonspect, deficit, dis- 
tinct, dot, 6chec et mat (an expression in the game of chess), exact, 
fat, granit, gratuit, infect, intact, net, rapt, respect, subit\ succint, 
tacet, tact, toast (a word taken from the English), transit, zenith. 
The final h in the last word is completely mute, as in every French 
word ending with h. 

Though sounded in Christ, t is silent in J^sus- Christ. 

In sortilege it sounds like t in natif (434). 

That letter is sounded before words commencing with vowels or h 
mute. 

Not sounded in the conjunction et, and, it must be pronounced in 
est, is, third person singular of the verb Ure. 

Yotre meret-arrivee — e-elle est re- Yotre mere est arrivee et elle est re- 

partie. partie. 

Ellest-tallee la, — elle-et-eux. Elle est allee la, — elle et eux. 

978. U sounds in aiguiser, aiguillon, sanguinaire, or in the 
family name of Guise. In order to give the English pronunciation, 
u in club is sounded like o. 

979. V when double has the sound of v single; consequently 
Warwick, Westphalia, Westminster, are sounded Varvick, Vest- 
phalie, Vest minster. 

Remark. — What the English call TV the French call double V. 
Xewton, Law,* are sounded Keuton, Lace, to approximate their 
English sounds. 

980. X sounds like gz in Xavier, Xenophon, le Xante, Xantippe, 
Xerces, or in Ximenes, which may be spelt Chimhxe. 

*A Scotchman, a schemer and swindler, projector of the Mississippi 
scheme, by which so many were ruined. 



PRONUNCIATION AND READING. 443 

It sounds like double s in Auxerre, Auxonne, Bruxelles ; pro- 
nounced Aussere, Aussonne, Brusselles. 

981. Y after vowels has the sound of two i's. It is incorrect 
to pronounce pai-san, pai-sage, a-iant. The true pronunciation of 
those words is pai-isan, pai-isage, ai-iant (11). 

982. Z sounds like s at the end of proper names: Suez, Eodez, 
Lopez, Juarez, etc. 

983. In familiar speech, ordinary reading or conversation, the 
connection of final consonants with vowels following them should 
take place very seldom : avant-hier, vous aimez a lire, are pro- 
nounced : avan-hier, vous aim£ a lire. 

To pronounce differently would look like pedantic affectation. 

984. In rhetorical speeches, public reading or declamatory per- 
formances, the union of final consonants with vowels must always 
take place. Therefore, these verses : 

Un grand homme est partout ou se r6pand sa gloire, 
II faut un intervalle au repos, aux plaisirs. 

must be sounded in this manner : 

Un gran rfiomme, est partou <ou se re"pand sa gloire, 
II fau tan nintervalle au repo, zaux plaisirs. 

From this rule, however, must be excepted a small number of 
cases, where final consonants are mate; viz., not sounded at all. 

Such are b in plomb ; d in words ending in ard, ord, dard, bord; 
G in poing, seing, coing ; p in drap, camp, champ, temps, etc. 

985. In reading sentences, we must indicate their punctuation 
by means of stops (939). The object of these stops is to assist in the 
apprehension of the different meanings contained in the various 
clauses. The want of breath also has its exigencies. Generally the 
reading of eight syllables requires a stop : nevertheless, we may take 
breath after the enunciation of seven, six, or fewer syllables, provided 
that pause takes place between two words independent of each Qther. 

In these verses : 

. Et le soc — de la terre — ouvrira les entrailles ; 
II ne trouve partout — que lache flatterie ; 

Where the separation marks occur, there must the pause be made. 

38* 



444 GRAMMAR. 

9S6. By means of varied inflexions, the voice must describe the 
several shades of meaning indicated by the sense. For instance, 
by intelligent modulations or intonations, it must carefully repre- 
sent words forming a parenthesis, or, by its elevation, those which 
claim most attention. 

In this sentence : 

Je veux, dit le heros, leur prouver que la peur ne peut m'attSrer. 

To express the sort of isolation in which these words are placed 
by the sense, dit le faros must be pronounced in a lower voice than 
the others. 

On the contrary, in this verse : - 

Que voulez-vous qu'il fit contretrois? — Qu'il mourut. 

To set in view the principal object of the thought, " Qu'il mourut" 
must be spoken in a higher tone than the preceding words. 

QUESTIONS. 
953. Dans quels mots ne prononce-t-on pas la voyelle a? 954. 
Quand faut-il prononcer ai comme e, quand se prononce-t-il comme 
a ? 955. Quand faut-il joindre n final des sons nasals avec la voyelle 
suivant cette consonne ? 956. Dans quel cas la consonne b se pro- 
nonce-t-elle a la fin des mots ? 957. Quels sont les mots ou la con- 
sonne finale c ne se fait pas sentir, et dans quels mots cette lettre 
prend-elle le son de g? 958. Quels sont les mots ou les lettres ch se 
prononcent comme k ? 958 bis. Quel son prend d quand il est place" 
a la fin des mots ? 959. Dans quels mots e se prononce-t-il ferme, et 
dans quels autres se prononce-t-il ouvert ? 960. Quand faut-il pro- 
noncer f a la fin des mots, quand ne faut-il pas prononcer cette lettre ? 
961. Dans quels cas g se prononce-t-il comme c ou comme k ? 962. 
Quelle est la maniere de prononcer gn? 963. Quels sont les mots ou 
la consonne h est aspiree, et quelles sont les expressions affranchies 
de la regie g6n6rale? 964. Dans quels mots ne faut-il pas pro- 
noncer la voyelle i ? 965. Quand ne faut-il pas prononcer l final ? 
966. Quels sont les mots ou m ne doit pas se prononcer ? 967. Dans 
quel mot ne faut-il pas prononcer n final, et quels sont les mots ou il 
est facultatif &' employer cette consonne avec ou sans prononciation 
nasale ? 968. Quels sont les mots ou les sons de la voyelle o ne doivent 
pas se faire sentir ? 969. Qui a-t-il a faire remarquer sur Temploi 
de la syllable oi ? 970. Quels sont les mots ou le p final ne doit pas 
ee prononcer? 971. Quand est-ce que la consonne q ne se prononce 



VICIOUS FRENCH EXPRESSIONS. 445 

pas a la fin des mots, dans quels cas se prononce-t-elle ? 972. Quels 
sont les sons qu'affectent qu quand ces deux lettres se trouvent r6- 
unies dans un mot ? 973. Dans quels mots faut-il prononcer r final? 
974. Indiquez-nous quelques emplois de la consonne s? 975. Quand 
faut-il prononcer cette consonne comme z ? 976. Indiquez un faux 
emploi de cette lettre ? 977. Quels sont les mots ou il faut prononcer 
la consonne finale t ? 978. Quand faut-il faire sentir la voyelle u 
dans Tinterieur des mots ? 979. Qu'avez-vous a faire remarquer sur 
Temploi du double u, mal a propos appele double v en Franqais? 
980. Comment prononcez-vous la lettre x, et dans quels mots cette 
consonne se prononce-t-elle comme ss? 981. Comment employez- 
vous y ? 982. Quel est le son de la lettre z, a la fin de certains noms 
propres? 983. Quand ne faut-il pas observer la regie d' union d'une 
consonne finale avec la voyelle comment ant une autre mot qui vient 
imm6diatement apres ? 984. Quand doit-on observer rigoureusement 
cette union ? 985. Que doit marquer la voix dans la lecture? 986. 
Quelle est la maniere d^noncer certains mots afin d'en indiquer le 
vrai sens ? 



CHAPTER EIGHTEENTH. 
987. Vicious French expressions, or Locutions vicieuses. 

Do not say : Say : 

La maison a mon pere, le livre k ma La maison de mon pere, le livre de ma 

soeur. soeur. 

II en a bien agi, il en a mal agi envers II a bien, il a mal agi avec moi. 

moi. 

Des angoises. Des angoisses. 

Ainsi done vous avez tort. Ainsi vous avez tort. 

Aire (lieu). Aere (lieu). 

Je me suis en alle (873). Je m'en suis alle. 

Angola (chat). Angora. 

A bonne heure, venir a bonne heure. De bonne-heure, venir de bonne-heure. 

A j amber un ruisseau. Enj amber un ruisseau. 

Acheter, vendre bon marche. Acheter, vendre a bon marche. 

II est apres a lire, la clef est apres la II est a lire, la clef est a la port©. 

porte. 

Etre assis contre quelqu'un, passer Etre assis pres, passer pres de quel- 

contre quelqu'un. qu'un. 

Apparution. Apparition. 

Apprentisse. Apprentie. 

Aussit6t son depart. Aussitot apres son depart. 



446 



GRAMMAR. 



Do not say : 

Bailler aux corneilles. 

Boulvary. 

II brouillasse. 

Casuel (ce vase est cdsuel). 

Centaure {voix de centaur e). 

Changez-vous, vous Stes tout trempe. 

Chipoteur, chipoteuse. 

Coasse (le corbeau). 

Cocaphonie. 

Colaphane. 

Coinme de juste. 

Consequente (affaire). 

Contrevention. 

Corpprence. 

Crainte qu'il ne vienne. 

Crasser ses habits. 

Cressane (poire de). 

Croasse (la grenouille). 

Croche-pied. 

II ne decesse de parler. 

Dehonte. 

Demander excuses. 

Dernier a Dieu (donner le). 

Disparution. 

Depersuader. 

Desagraffer. 

Dinde (un). 

Eduque (enfant lien). 

Elexir. 

Embrouillamini. 

lis s'en sont fuis. 

En outre de cela. 

Errhes (recevoir des). 

Esquilancie. 

Farce (cet homme est). 

Filagrane. 

Fortune (cet homme est). 

Franchipane. 

Gazouiller quelque chose. 

Geane. 

Generanium. 

Gigier. 

Gouaillier quelqu'un. 

Guette (de bonne). 

Honchets. 

Ici (dans ce moment). 

Ici (cet homme). 

Inestimable (homme). 

Invectiver quelqu'un. 

Jeu-d'eau. 

Jouir d'une mauvaise reputation. 

11 d'une mauvaise sante\ 
L'idee lui a pris d'Scrire. 
Lierre (pierre de lierre). 



Say: 

Bayer aux corneilles. 

Hourvary. 

II bruine (264 bis). 

Fragile, cassant. 

Stentor (voix de). 

Changez de vetements*, vous e*tes tout 

trempe (1441). 
Chipotier, cnipotiere. 
Croasse (le corbeau). 
Cacophonie. 
Colophane. 

Comme de raison, comme il est juste. 
Importante (affaire) 578. 
Contravention. 
Corpulence. 

De crainte qu'il ne vienne (816). 
Encrasser ses habits. 
Crassane (poire de). 
Coasse (la grenouille). 
Cloche-pied (1101). 
II ne cesse de parler. 
Ehonte. 

Faire des excuses, demander pardon. 
Denier a Dieu (donner le). 
Disparition. 
Dissuader. 
Degraffer. 
Dinde (une). 
Eleve (enfant hi en). 
Elixir. 

Brouillamini. 
II se sont enfuis. 
Outre cela. 
Arrhes (recevoir des). 
Esquinancie. 

Cet homme est farceur, est plaisant. 
Filigrane. 

Riche (cet homme est). 
Frangipane. 

Gater quelque chose (516, 925). 
Geante. 
Geranium. 
Gesier. 

Railler (quelqu'un). 
Guet (de bon guet). 
Jonchets. 

Ci (dans ce moment). 
Ci (cet homme). 
Qui ne merite pas d'etre estime" 

(homme). 
Invectiver (contre) quelqu'un (87). 
Jet-d'eau. 
Avoir une mauvaise reputation. 

u une mauvaise sant£. 
L'idee lui est venue d'ecrire. 
Liais (pierre de liais). 



VICIOUS FRENCH EXPRESSIONS. 



447 



Do not say : 

Linceuil. 

Linteaux {serviette a). 

Malgre. II fut force malgre lui d'y 

consentir (857;. 
Massacrante (humeur). 
Matereaux. 
Megard (par). 
Mesentendu. €*• 
Midi precises. 
Midi (vers les). 
Minable (air). 
Minuit (sur les). 
Moriginer. 

Misser-Jean (poire de). 
Ouette. 

Oragan. 

Palfermier. 

Panegerique. 

Pantomine. 

Passagere (rue). 

Faire une chose a la perfection, ou au 

parfait. 
Peu (un petit). 
Perclue (une personne). 
Pire (tant). 
II va pire. 
Pluresie. 

Pointilleur (homme). 
Portante (personne lien). 
Raiguiser un couteau. 
Rancuneur, rancuneuse. 
ReVarbaratif. 
Rebiffade. 
Rebours (d la). 
Pecouvert (il a) recouvert la vue, la 

sante, etc. 
Rernouler un couteau. 
Remplir un but. 
Renforci (cet enfant est). 
Reprimendable. 
Restez-vous ? (oh). 
Retablir le desordre. (C. a d.'le faire 

cesser.) 
Revange. 
Rimoulade. 
Sans-dessus-dessous. 
Secoupe. 
Semouille. 

Soubriquet. — 

Soupoudrer. 
Vous avez du cafe, sucrez-voua. 

T&chez que je sois satisfait. 



Say : 

Linceul. 

Litteaux (serviette d). 

II fut force d'y consentir. 

Insupportable (humeur). 

Materiaux. 

Megarde (par). 

Malentendu. 

Midi precis (1185). 

Midi (vers le, sur le). 

Miserable (air) (866). 

Minuit (sur le, vers le) (1185). 

Morigener. 

Mes sire- Jean (poire de). 

Ouate (la) without elision in the ar- 
ticle (313). 

Ouragan. 

Palfrenier. 

Panegyrique. 

Pantomime (517). 

Passante, frequentee (rue). 

Faire une chose en perfection, par- 
faitement (1026). 

Veu(un) (798). 

Percluse (une personne). 

Pis (tant) (408). 

II va pis. 

Pleuresie. 

Pointillieux (homme). 

Qui se porte bien (personne) (1013). 

Aiguiser un couteau. 

Rancunier, rancuniere. 

Rebarbatif. 

Rebuffade. 

Rebours (a ou au). 

Recouvre (il a) recouvre la vue, la 
sante, etc. 

Emoudre un couteau. 

Atteindre un but (870). 

Cet enfant s'est renforcS. 

Reprehensible. 

Demeurez-vous? (oil). 

Retablir Fordre. 

Revanche. 

Remolade. 

Sens-dessus-dessous. 

Soucoupe. 

Semoulle. 

Sobriquet. 

Saupoudrer. 

Vous avez du cafe, sucrez-le. Prenez 

du sucre. 
Faites en sorte que je sois satisfait 

(tdchez nepouvant etre suivi de la 

conj. que). 



448 



GRAMMAR. 



Do not eat/ : 

Tannant. 

Temps (une heure de) 857. 

Tentatif. 

Tete d'oreiller. 

Tonton. 

Tout de meme (firai). 

Transvider. 

Tray age.* 

Trayer. 

Tremontade (perdre la). 

Tresauriser. 

Trichard. 

Une fois pour tout. 

Vagistas. 

Vessicatoire. 

Volte {/aire la). 



Say; 

Vexant, contrariant. 

Une heure. 

Tentant. 

Taie d'oreiller. 

Toton. 

Aussi, ou Sgalement (firai). 

Transvaser. 

Triage. *^ 

Trier. 

Tramontane (perdre la). 

Thesauriser. 

Tricheur. 

Une fois pour toutes (855). 

Vasistas. 

VSsicatoire. 

Vole (/aire la). 



E1CD OF THE SECOXD PART. 



COMPLETE FRENCH COURSE. 



THIRD PART. 



CHAPTER NINETEENTH. 



988. Avoir. 



Use and idioms of avoir, to have, in French, 



Avoir 



f Chaud, 
Froid, 
Faim, 
Soif, 
Peur, 
Raison, 
Droit, 
Tort, 
Honte, 
Sommeil, 
Obligation, 
Intention, 
De la prudence, 
Dix ans, 
Pres d'un an, 



Answer to To be 



Warm. 
Cold. 
Hungry. 
Thirsty. 
Afraid, 
Right. 
In the right. 
Wrong. 
Ashamed. 
Sleepy. 
Obliged. 
Intending. 
Prudent. 
Ten year 8 old. 
Nearly a year old. 



Quelque chose with affirmations, rien with negations, are used 
equally with avoir, in French.* 

Remark. — Those idioms consist in the dropping of the determinate 
article, or determinative adjective, before common substantives. 
Generally they correspond in signification to a simple verb, as shown 
in the foregoing examples (610). 

* J'ai quelque chose, answering to, I have something; or, Something is the 
matter with me. 

449 



450 GRAMMAR. 

Should we use the same nouns determinately, — viz.: with a com- 
plement limiting them, — they must be preceded by the forms of the 
determinate article or determinative adjective (306, 358 bis). 

Cet enfant a la raison que Ton possede That child has the knowledge which is 
a son age, possessed at his age. 

Vous avez la faim que procure un You feel the hunger induced by long 
long jeune, fasting. 

lis ont une raison prScoce, They have a precocious judgment. 

Avoir pour un morceau de pain answers to, in English, to have 
something a dead bargain, very cheap. 

9S9. When expressing, either determinately or indeterminately 
(307), obligations depending on our will, or upon previous arrange- 
ments, avoir answers to to be* 

J'ai d Scrire a mon frere et a ma I am to write to my brother and sister, 

*soeur, 

C'est demain ou apres demain que j'ai I am to pay my store-rent to-morrow or 

a payer mon loyer, after to-morrow. 

990. Coming before nouns, pronouns, or verbs in the infinitive, 
the following idioms are invariably followed by the preposition de; 
— viz.: they take indirect objects. 

Cet homme a besoin de manger, That man needs something to eat. 

J'ai besoin de mon chapeau, I need my hat. 

II a besoin de bon pain, He needs good bread. 

Nous manquons d'argent, We are without money. 

991. Remark. — Avoir besoin, in French, expresses always want, 
necessity. When the word want, in English, is used to express a 
Bimple wish, it must not be rendered by avoir besoiii, in French. 

Cet homme a besoin de travail, That ?7ian needs work, or wants to work. 

Cet enfant a envie de travailler, That child wishes to work. 

992. 

Avoir 



besoin. 


coutume, 


honte, 


en vne, 


permission, 
dessein, 


conge, 
le secret, 


intention, 
Fhonneur, 


souvenance, 
la peine, 


envie, 

raison. 

soin, 


peine, 

facilite, 

lieu, 


le courage, 

peur, 

crainte. 


l'usage, 

le temps, 

des nouYelles, etc., 



take the preposition de, when followed by verbs in the present infini- 
tive. They drop that preposition to take que, should those verbs be 
in the subjunctive. 

* See Fasquelle's Method, page 110-5. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF AVOIR. 451 

J'ai besoin trailer la, I need to go there. 

Nous avons envie de venir, We wish to come. 

Vous craignez de lui parler, You are a/raid to speak to him. 

A-t-il besoin qu'on le lui dise? Does he need to be told of it? 

Avez-vous envie qu'on vous en donne ? Do you wish them to give you some? 

993. In the foregoing examples, we see that indirect complements 
must always follow those expressions. 

Therefore, in sentences where the pronoun en, de lui, d'elle, de 
cela, of him, of her, of it (377), takes the place of a noun, the prepo- 
sition de is not used (799). 

Speaking of a servant or book, we will say : 

J* en ai besoin, or j'ai besoin de lui I want him {the servant, etc.). 
> (637) ou d'elle, etc., 

Nous en avons besoin, or nous avons We want it (the book or object). 
besoin de cela, 

994. Avoir beau, in French, corresponds with it is useless,' it is 
in vain, in English. That expression is always followed by infini- 
tives. 

Vous avez beau lui parler, jamais il ne In. vain do you speak to him, he never 

vous ecoute, listens to you. 

Vous avez beau dire et beau faire, il It is useless for you to do tor say any 

n'ecoutera personne, thing, he listens to nobody. 

995. Avoir du mal means to have sore or sores. It is used with 
reference to any part of the body sensible to the eye, and does not 
necessarily denote pain.* 

J'ai du mal a la tete, / have sores on the head. 

Tu as du mal au bras, Thou hast sores on thy arm, 

Nous avons du mal aux pieds* We have sore feet. 

lis ont du mal aux yeux et aux oreilles, They have sore eyes and sore ears. 

995 bis. Couvert, rempli, crible, plein, etc., answering to full, in 
English, refer only to diseases sensible to the eye, and require the 
preposition de before their indirect object. 

lis sont couverts de mal de la tete They are covered with sores from head 

aux pieds, to foot. 

Leur visage est crible de petite Their face is entirely marked with 

verole, small-pox. 

Son bras est couvert efulceres, His arm is covered with ulcers. 

996. Avoir mal de, avoir mal a la, or avoir mal au, referring to 
inward pains or aches, always express suffering in the patient. 

* For ludicrous definitions, see Fasquelle's Method, page 183-1. 



452 GRAMMAR. 

J'ai mal de tete ou a la tete, / have the headache. 

H a mal de bras ou au bras, He has a pain in the arm. 

Vous avez mal a l'oreille ou aux You have the earache. 

oreilles, 

H a mal de cceur, ou le mal de cceur, Mis stomach is deranged. 

Vous avez mal de dents, ou aux dents, You have the toothache. 

997. Mal aux yeux, mal au gosier, mal aux oreilles, answering 
to a pain in the eye, in the throaty the earache, always express some- 
thing unseen , though more or less felt. 

998. Avoir du mal aux yeux, avoir du mal au gosier, avoir du 
mal aux oreilles, answering to to have sore eyes, sore throat, sore ears, 
express something sensible to the eye, sometimes unfelt. 

999. Connected with qualifying adjectives, avoir mal, when re- 
ferring to aches, takes one of the forms of the numeral adjective un, 
line, corresponding with a, an (318). In these cases it is used sub- 
stantively. 

Nous avons un violent mal-de-tete, We have a severe headache (1184). 

II a un leger mal-de-gosier, He has a slight affection of the throat, 

Yous avez un fort rhume-de-ceryeau, You have a heavy cold in the head. 

1000. Referring to occurrences, avoir lieu answers to the English 
expressions to take place, to happen, to occur. 

Cela a lieu tous les jours, That occurs or happens every day. 

1001. Avoir lieu de croire, de penser, de supposer, etc., answers 
to to have reason for a thing, etc. 

J'ai lieu de croire qu'il se trompe, / have reason to believe he is mistaken. 

Nous avons lieu de supposer qu'il We have reason for thinking that he 

s'est trompe dans son calcul, is mistakeji in his calculation. 

Followed by the preposition a, preceding (760) infinitives, avoir 
may have many acceptations. 

J'ai a faire a un mechant homme, I have to deal icith a wicked man. 

Nous avons a dire cela, It is our business to say so. 

J'ai a prendre un parti, I have to come to a decision. 

Avoir la parole facile, answers to to tall' with ease, in English. 
Avoir access is to have admittance, avoir un access is to have a fit, 
avoir un faible is to be inclined, — requiring different prepositions. 

Nous avons acces dans cette maison, We have admittance in that house. 

II a eu plusieurs acces de fievre, de He has had several attacks of fever, of 

folie, folly. 

Nous eprouvons un faible pour le We feel inclined for ease. 

bien-etre, 



USES AND IDIOMS OF AVOIR. 453 

Avoir recours answers to to resort, to use, and takes the proposi- 
tion a. 

Vous avez recours a la force et a la You resort to force and cunning. 
ruse, 

Avoir le dessus signifies to prevail. 
Avoir le dessous means to succumb. 
They both take indirect complements. 

1002. Preceded by en, avoir means quarrelling. In that case it 
takes the prepositions contre or avec, answering to with, in English. 

Cet homme en a contre tous, That man quarrels with everybody. 

Cette femme est insupportable, elle en This is an insupportable woman, she 
a avec tout le voisinage, quarrels with every one in the neigh- 

borhood. 

Avoir la chance answers to to have an occasion to do a thing. 
Avoir la vogue, to be in repute. 

1003. Avoir Fair means to appear. When followed by a quali- 
fying adjective, the adjective must agree with the common substan- 
tive air, without regard to the gender and number of the substantive 
subject of the sentence (866). 

Cette demoiselle a l'air gentil, n'est-ce That young lady appears genteel, doe* 
pas? (171). she not? 

1004. Expressing dimensions by measurement, avoir always 
answers to to be in English. 

Cette maison a quarante-cinq pieds de That house is forty-five feet in front 
facade, sur vingt de profondeur, by twenty deep. 

1005. Avoir souvenance sometimes takes the place of se souvenir, 
to remember (9^1), and requires indirect objects in French. 

J'ai souvenance de cela, I remember that. 

1006. Avoir Pceil, la main, le pied, etc., are used idiomatically 
in French. 

Cette femme dans son menage tient In her household that woman sees and 
Fceil et la main a tout, does every thing. 

Cet homme ale pied dans cette maison That man has a footing in that house 
et la gouverne, and governs it. 

1006 bis. Used figuratively, avoir du mal answers to to have diffi- 
culty, to labor, to experience trouble in doing things. 



454 GRAMMAR. 

Xous avons eu beaucoup de mal u le We i txperienc+d great trouble in doing 

faire. that. 

II a eu beaucoup de mal & s'instruire, Be has had much trouble in becoming 

instructed. 
Vous aurez beaucoup de mal a ap- You icill experience great trouble in 

prendre, learning. 

1007. Sometimes avoir has the signification of to hold, to wear, 
in English. 

Elles avaient un livre a la main, et They held a booh in their hands, wear- 
une couronne de neurs sur la : ing a crown of /lowers on their 

(592), heads. 

lOO? bis. With reference to the days of the month, avoir is seldom 
used in French (1017). 

Aujourd'hui nous avons le dix, To-day is the tenth. 

There is here an ellipsis in each language, the complement du 
mois, of the month, being understood. 



CHAPTER TWENTIETH. 
Uses and Idioms of the Substantive Verb ETRE ix French. 

lOOS. We have already seen (27) that etre may represent or express 
every sort of existence or modification of being in subjects. In every 
language, ancient and modern, etre, to be, is a substantive verb re- 
quiring no complement (466), and cannot be ranked with either neu- 
ter or any other kind of ver" * 

Referring to health, it signifies to be icell, to be umcell, or to do well. 

Ce malade est bien a present, de bien That sick man is well at present, 
mal qu'il €tait hier soir, though he was very ill fast evening. 

Remark. — This idiom is common to both languages. 

1009. Referring to position of fortune, etre means to be rich or to 
be poor. 

Ce marchand est bien, That merchant is well off. 

mquiers ne sont pas bien. Those bankers are not well off. 

Cet bomme est mal dans ses affaires, That man does a poor business. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF ETRE. 455 

1010. Speaking of good or bad looks, good or bad manners, it 
corresponds with to look well or to look bad, to be polite or ill-man- 
nered, etc. 

Cet enfant est bien, That boy is good-looking. 

Cette petite fille est mal, That little girl is ugly. 

Ce jeune-homme est mieux que l'autre, This young man is better brought up 

than the other. 

1011. Etre a la mode is said of persons or things: 

Cette cantatrice est a la mode (342), That female singer is in fashion. 

Cet opera est a la mode, That opera is in fashion. 

Ce chapeau n'est pas de mode fran- That hat is not according to French 
caise (547), fashion. 

101*2. Both referring to health, etre, alter, are used with the same 
signification. 

Comment etes-vous? ou, comment How do you do this morning ? 
allez-vous ce matin ? 

Se porter, literally to carry one's self, is used also with the same 
meaning, when referring to health (1171). 

Comment yous portez-Y0U3 ? How do you do f 

1013. In speaking of health, the French and English use always 
verbs expressing action or existence: etre, to be; aller, to go; se porter, 
to carry one's self. The reflective verb se trouver is used sometimes 
with reference to health. 

Comment yous trouYez-YOUs actuelle- How do you find yourself at present? 
ment? 

1014. To indicate relations of possession, etre, to be, is used in 
both languages. 

Ce cheval est a moi, ce chapeau est a That horse is mine, that hat is yours, 
vous, cette maison est a elle, that house is hers. 

1014 bis. Followed by the qualifying adjective riche, the verb etre 
is used also with reference to persons and things. In the first case it 
means to be worth ; in the second, to be valuable, more splendid. 

Cet homme est riche d'un ou deux That man is worth one or two millions. 

mill- 
ion seulement cette etoffe est magni- Not only is that ttujf magnificent, but 

fique, mais elle est de plus tres- it is very valuable also. 

riche, 

39*^ 



456 GRAMMAR. 

1015. E: :en, indicates state in subjects (71* 

Thence the yariety of expressions resulting from th: -rb, 

either in French or English. 

To be well formed. 
: dans 1'age, To be alive, to be dead, to be old. 
To be good r to be bad, 
i cheval, £tre en yoiture, To be on horseback, to be in a carriage, 

Etre debout, etre assis. etre eouehe, To be up, to be seated, to lie down. 
B en sante, £tre malade, a charge, To be healthy, to be rick, to be depend- 
ent. 

1016. In French or English, Hre expresses the relation which 
pers bear to places : — yiz. : state or situation in subjects 

■ 

Mon pere et ma mere sent a Paris, My father and mother are in Paris. 

L ::;;;::: Aur.fterre M cue Pa- L ;-*i- n m in England what Paris u in 

France, 
II est dans Pannee, Tons eies ayocat, He is in the army, you are a laicyer. 

^ au logis, a la niaison, chez-soi, signify to be at home, to be 
at our own house, or with us, with you, etc. 

Je snis chei mon frere. chex-moi. ehei- I am at my brother's, at home, 

nous, 
Etes-Tons chei-yous, on ehei yotre Are you at home, or at yomr brother's f 

frere? 
Chez -nous il n'en est pas question, With us there is no question of that. 

The preposition chez may also correspond with among in English. 
In those cases, £tre, to be, expresses state in the subject. 

II €tait d'usage, chei les Romains, de Among (or with) the Romans it was cus- 
r£duire a Feselayage les prison- tomary to reduce prisoners of war 

to slavery. 

The same preposition may be connected with the following v 

Aller, rester. demenrer, diner, souper, To go, to Use, to sup, to eat, etc 
manger, etc., 

Je rais rester chei ma mere, / am going to reside with my mother, 

H dine et soupe chei-nous. He dines and sups with us. 

Couehei-vous chei-lui. on chei le Do you sleep at his house, or at the 
yoisin? neighbor's f 

Pent §tre, without hyphen, answers to may be. It must not be 
confounded with the adverb peut-etre, answering to perhaps (62 

Cela pent £tre vrai. That may be true. 

Pent -£tre ai-je r^ Perhaps I am right. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF ETRE. 457 

1017. In both languages, etre, to be, is in general use to express: 
(1.) The days of the week. 

C'est aujourd'hui samedi, demain ce To-day is Saturday y to-morrow Sunday, 
sera dimanche, 

(2.) The days of the month: 

Hier c'etait le vingt-quatre aout de Yesterday icas the twenty -fourth August 
neTaste memoire, of inauspicious memory, 

(3.) The months or seasons of the year: , 

C'est au premier Janvier que commence It is the first of January that opens the 

l'annee, year. 

Nous sommes en ete depuis hier, Since yesterday we have had summer. 

C'est l'hiver prochain qu'il arrivera, He is to arrive next winter. 

(4.) The divisions between night and day, with the subdivisions of 
both into hours : 

II est encore jour, mais il sera nuit It is yet daylight, but it will be com- 

close avantqu'une heure s'ecoule, pletely dark within an hour. 

Savez-vous l'heure qu'il est? Do you know what time it is ? 

(5.) The successive periods of time, the preposition en being used 
for pendant before determinative substantives (825). 

C'est en Pan mil-quatre-vingt-quinze It was in the year one thousand and 
qu'a eu lieu la premiere croisade, ninety-five that the first crusade took 

place. 

1018. Speaking of persons or things, in both languages, §tre, to 
be, is used to express affirmations. 

II est malade, elle est bien portante, He is sick, she is in good health. 
II est jour, il est nuit (1026), It is daylight, it is dark. 

C'est midi, il est minuit, It is noon, it is midnight. 

Negations modify but do not destroy the action expressed in the 
substantive verb etre, to be (31). The following sentences affirm that 
something is not; the preceding, that something is. 

II n'est pas malade, elle n'est pas bien He is not sick, she is not well. 

portante, 

II n'est pas jour, il n'est pas nuit, il It is not daylight, it is not dark, it is 

est temps, time. 

Ce n'est pas inidi, il n'est pas minuit, It it not noon, it is not midnight. 

The following expressions : 



458 



GRAMMAR. 



1019. 

a la glace. 

en guerre, tout yeux, tout oreil- 

aux eouteaux, en armes (935), 
a la chemise, dupe, dans Pig 
aux ecoutes, trait e, regale, 

au pied du mur, a Teau, 

sans fa con. e. en veine, 

aux abois, aux mains. To 

court de quelque chose, a bas, 
en danse. aux prises, chiche, 
mourant. rivant. a Tagonie, 

tout feu, en peine, en faveur, 

homme a faire toute sortes de 

chc5 
en retard, en aTance, a l'heure, 
en bourgeois, en militaire, en 

uniform, 

are a few of the numerous idiom? of 
to learners during the course of their 



pleased (with reference to per- 

at the freezing point, 

at war or upon bad terms, icatch- 
fid, 

at daggers' points, in arms, 

reduced to poverty, fooled, old, 

listening slilj/, treated hand- 
somely, 

at bay, in tcater, dieting on 
tcater, 

unceremonious, easy, in luck, 
be ■{ in despa ir,figh t ing, low ( or very 

short of something, down, 
in action, fighting, stingy, 
dying, living, drawing the last 

breath, 
fiery (in action), t» trouble, in 

fair way, 
a man fit to undertake any thing, 

late, in advance, in time, 
in civilian or military dress, 



eire which practice will reveal 

study. 



Remark. — To express either age or time, eire is used in French. 

5 dans mes vingt anS, / am now twenty. 

I mmes en mil-huit cent soixante, We are in eighteen hundred and sixty. 

Etre de force corresponds with to have sufficient strength, to be 
equal to the task. 



io->o. 

fache. peine, done". I 
Etre-{ m£content, en colere 

au fait, bien aise. de ret our, 



( sorry, dissatisfied, endowed, tired, 
To be \ discontented, angry, 

{^capable, glad, come back, 



according to general rule on complements (303). reach their object 
through prepositions, or drop them when those complements are 
direct objects (69). 

We are displeased with that. 
They are angry with you. 

ire acquainted with that affair. 
They are displeased at being scolded. 



I sommes fache s de cela, 
Us sont en colere eomi 
Tons etes au fait de cette affaire, 

at mecontents qwon les gronde, 



Remark. — The last example is elliptical, in French, standing for 
"lis sont mecontents de ce qu'on les grondr 



USES AND IDIOMS OF ETRE. 

dans de mauvais draps answers to to be in a bad position in 
life, in a had plight. 

1021. E :netimes used in French with the meaning of 

to become or to be becoming. 
"With this signification, when expressing the performance of a 
duty, it takes the preposition when indicating turn | * 

Comme pere c'est a vouj de lni faire It becomes you as a father to reproach 
des I him. 

i j-intenant a pari It is m our turn to speak now. 

1022. 

f bien avec, on mal m C on good or bad term*, 

jue, I e -J of opinion, 
[ d'avis a [of opinion with, or to agree with, 

are examples demonstrating the impossibility of giving rules on the 
practical use of prepositions. Therefore we leave for practice what 
defies the 

1023. To ex rf etre 

N place of the same tense of aller (j'allai, 1 icer 

J'ai ete a Pari3, je sm3 ici main ten ant, I have been to Paris, I am here now. 

1024. I ns, or the possession of phy- 
il or intellectual faculties, %tre is used frequently in both lan- 

• 

He is a Icing and I am a shepherd. 
ivocat et il est m£de r and he is a physician* 

•rax, i good and yon are vicious. 

- iide, is handsome and you are ugly. 

T» C8 ignorant et il est instruit, Thou art ignorant and he is learned. 

Remark. — To express social classifies le French use adjee. 

ien indeterminate substantives are used in English. 
th languages to express the | m of 

teal or intellectual faeull 
'jgaa, elle e~t intelligente, He is handsome, she is smart. 

1025. 8 edtoexpr ial positions 

or grades be qualified by adjectives, they become substantives, and 
mav rrminatelv or indeterminatelv in both languages 

it le gTan i simple He was the great king, and I the plain 

: i-er, shepherd. 

tm bon av ■ You are a good lawyer, and he is a sorry 

maurais - 1 icit.* 

m false theories, see FasqueUVa Method, p. 97-1, 2, 3, 4. 



460 GRAMMAR. 

To express size without measurement, viz., on simple estimation 
or guess, etre is required also (1004) in the two languages. 

II est grand, elle est petite. He is tall, she is short. 

Ce elocher est moins £leve que l'autre. That steeple is lower than the other. 

Cet hoiiuiie est plus gros que tous de That man is bigger than you by far. 
beauooup, 

10*25 bis. Je suis votre homme answers in English to I am a 
match for you. or equal to the task. Etre a la merei corresponds with 
the same expression in English. 

II est a la merei des vents et des Acts, He is at the mercy of winds and leaves. 
Noufl somnies a leur merei. We are in their power. 

Cost votre merei que j 'implore, It is your pity that I implore. 

Etre en bate, in French, is to be buffeted, to struggle with. 
Tous etes en bute a l'infortune, You are struggling icith misfortune. 

Etre au gre\ as shown in the following examples, has several mean- 
ings in French. 

Nottfl sommes au gre du vent, We go at the tcind's pleasure, 

Cela va-t-il a votre gre ? Does this please you f 

Je fais eela de bon ef non de mauvais I do it willingly, not unwillingly. 
gre, 

De gre" ou de force, bon gre inalgre, answers to willing or unwilling 
in English, nolens volens in Latin. The expression: " Je suis k tous/' 
has two meanings, depending on complements. 

Je suis a vous pour toujours, 7a»i yours for e. 

Je suis a vous dans un instant, I icill be with you in u moment. 

The indirect complement a Vavenant may be connected with many 
verbs: it answers to the expression in the best style or best 7nanner. 

Cet homme boit et mange a l'avenant. That man drinks and eats} . , x 

Ce moreeau fat eliante ^ l'avenant. That piece was sung > - 

Ces dames sent mises a l'avenant. Those ladies are dressed J ^ e ' 

Musique. danse. raffraiehissements. Music, dancing, and refreshments, every 
tout fut a l'avenant dans eette went off in the best 9tyle at 

soiree (824)j that evening party. 

Etre en perte, etre en gain, correspond with- to be a gainer, to be 
a loser. 
Je suis en perte, lui est en gain, 7 am a loser, he is a gainer. 

In the plural, etre en fonds means to have money. It refers to 

humor when used in the singular. 

Aujourd'hui nous sommes en fonds. To-day tee have money, or cash. 
II est en fond de causer, d'en conter, He it in the humor of chattering. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF FAIRE. 



461 



Etre k portee de voix answers to to be within hearing. 
Etre k portee de canon means to be within range of a gun. 
Etre k portee de faire une chose is to be in a position to do some- 
thing. 

Etre gris is used idiomatically for to be drunk. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FIRST. 

Uses and Idioms of Faire. 

"We have already given (897) some of the uses of faire. Like etre, 
that verb may express in French many modes of existence, as the 
following examples show. 

10'26. With reference to weather or atmospherical phenomena, 
answering to to be in English, faire expresses state in things. 



H fait 



f chaud, 
froid, 
du vent, 

de la pluie, ou il pleut, 
de la neige, ou il neige, 
des eclairs, des tonnerres ou 

il tonne, 
du brouillard, de la brume, 
soleil, jour (1018), 
lune, ou clair de lune, 
beau-temps, ou il fait beau, 
mauvais-temps, etc., 



warm, 
cold, 
windy. 

raining, or it rains. 

snowing, or it snows. 

, lightning, thundering. 

foggy, smoky, 
sunshine, daylight, 
moonlight, 
fine weather, 
bad, weather, etc. 



Literally, in French : it makes warm, cold, wind, rain, snow, light- 
ning, etc. 

1027. To-represent state in persons or things, faire answers to 
the verb to be in English, as shown in the following examples : 

II fait silence, ils font du bruit, He is silent, they are noisy. 

II fait de la boue, de la poussiere, It is muddy, dusty, calm weather. 

calme, 

II fait un temps assommant, It is tiresome or sultry weather. 

In French, faire enters into the composition of many idiomatic 
expressions, a practical knowledge of which is indispensable to the 
perfect understanding of the language. 



462 



GRAMMAR. 



1028. 

Faire 



une lieue, un rnille, 

une course, halte, une halte, 

un tour de chambre, partie, 

un tour de jardin, l'appel, 

un 6change, echange, 

ses adieux, tort, prisonnier, 

ses malles, son paquet, 

des dettes, des avances, 1 

des fautes, un peche, 

des emplettes, des conditions, 

feu, frire (232), honneur, 

du feu, de Feau (parlant de 

navires), 
feu .de tout, feu de tout bois, 
des siennes, pied-de-grue, To 

des ceremonies, des Econo- 
mies, 

un compliment, des questions, 
des reponses, 

son possible, de la peine, 

tout au monde, apprentissage, 

recolte, la chasse, la peche, 
recette, de la depense, voile, 
Taumone, des largesses, 
entrer, descendre, effet, 

sortir, monter, expier, 
attendre, droit, 



go a league, go a mile. 

take a trip, to stop. 

go round the room, to be part or 

member, etc. 
walk around the garden, call 

the roll, 
exchange something, 
bid farewell, wrong, arrest for 

jail, etc. 
pack up trunks, prepare to 

leave, 
contract debts, advance money, 
commit faults, commit a sin. 
make purchases, conditions, 
shoot, fry something, honor, 
make fire, leak (speaking of 



use every means. 

cut capers ox frolic, wait a long 

time, 
be ceremonious, save money. 

pass a compliment, ask ques~ 
tions, give answers. 

do one's best, give pain or 
trouble. 

do the utmost, serve an appren- 
ticeship. 

gather a crop, hunt, fish. 

collect money, spend, sail. 

give alms, bestow large gifts. 

let in, let down, produce a sen- 
sation. 

let out, let up, atone. 

cause people to wait t grant 
justice. 



1029. Remarks. — 1st. Faire son possible, faire tout au monde, 
take the preposition pour ; or, to prevent tedious repetitions, the pre- 
positive expression ajin de before verbs in the infinitive. 

II fait tout au monde pour contenter He does his utmost to please his friends 
ses amis, et ajin de satisfaire son and to satisfy his good heart. 

bon coeur, 

2d. Faire entrer, faire sortir, are used in speaking of either per- 
sons or inanimate things. Eentrer is used with reference to returns 
to former places. 

Faites entrer ces messieurs dans le Take those gentlemen into the parlor. 

salon, 

Faites sortir le cheval de l'Scurie, Lead the horse out of the stable. 

Faisons rentrer la marchandise en Let us have the goods brought back to 

magasin, the store. + 



USES AND IDIOMS OF FAIRE. 



463 



Sd. Faire attendre, signifying to cause to wait, is said only of 
persons. 

Vous nous avez fait attendre long- You kept us waiting a long time. 
temps, 

In French, faire may represent any mode of existence or occu- 
pation in life. 



la classe, eeole, petite-bouche, 

la soupe, le diner, 

la chambre, la maison, cercle, 

des embarras, des courbettes, 

des salamalecs, 
luniiere, obscur, 
la vendange, fi ! 
la moisson, la fenaison, 
la partie. des preparatifs, 
de l'eau (parlant des toitures), 
du vin, de l'huile, du pain, 
le tour, la ronde, 
de la politique, la cour, 
la guerre, la paix, 
du jardinage, du bois, 
la comedie. la police, 
le tour de monde, face, 

la noce ou noce, de la musique, 

fete, -choux-blanc, 
1030. 

Faire J le dimanche, des jeux, 
manger, boire, nre, 

la loi, la morale, la lecture, 
parler, dire, voir, 
sentinelle, la patrouille. 
silence, du bruit, l'eloge, 

honte, 

en sorte, reflexion, faute, 



raccommoder quelque chose, 

usage, 
la barbe. les ongles, 
bonne vie, bonne chere, ribote, 

toilette, la moue, horreur, 
le bien ou le mal, 
bien, la grimace, 
bouillir. rotir, cuire, 
chauffer, refroidir, geler, 
preuve, 

abstinence, usage d'aliments, 
{ peur, mettre le pouce, 

40 



have a class, teach, make a 

secret, 
make soup, make a dinner. 
fix a room, a house, sit around, 
make a great ado, make submis- 
sive bows, 
light one, be dark iceather. 
gather grapes,' to contemn. 
gather the harvest, make hoy. 
Jjlay a game, prepare things. 
leak ( speaking of roofs). 
make wine, oil. bread, 
go round, patrol about, 
speak politics, court persons, 
make war, peace, 
raise vegetables, cut down wood, 
play comedy, act as police agent, 
go round the world, meet face 

to face, 
celebrate a wedding, make 

*music. 
keep a holy day, take trouble for 

nothing, 
keep the Sabbath, play games, 
give to eat, give to drink, cause 

to laugh, 
give lav:, moralize, read, 
cause to sjjeak, say, or see. 
keep watch, patrol. 
keep> silence, make a noise, 

pro 
cause shame, 
so dispose that , refect, 

miss somebody or some- 

th ing. 
have a thing mended, use. 

shave, trim the nails. 

live well, keep a good table, 

drink excessively, 
dress, frown, horrify, 
do well or ill. 
fit well, fit badly, 
boil, roast, cook, 
warm, cool, freeze. 
test. 

absta in from food, use food, 
frighten, overcome, or subdue. 



464 



GRAMMAR. 



1031. 

Faire 



610), pardonner, le g6- 

nereux, 
fausse route, fausse voie, fausse 

ligne, 
carnaval, part, 

bonbance, gala, 
du bien. du mal, 
tort, pitie, ses adieux, 

bonne ou mauvaise mine. 



To 



r pardon or forgive, be gcnerou*. 

get on a false scent or take the 
wrong direction. 

celebrate the carnival, commu- 
nicate, 

carouse, feast. 

heal, irritate. 

wrong, cause commiseration, bid 
adieu. 

appear good or bad. 



Faire l'eeole buissonniere means to play truant. 
Faire la eour a une dame, to pay addresses to a lady. 
Faire la eour, with reference to schools, is to icatch pupils during 
hours of play. 

103*2. Remarks on some of the foregoing expressions. 

When said of persons, faire bien, faire mal, mean to do right, 

to do icrong. 

enfant fait bien, eelui-la, fait mal, This child does right, that one does 

wrong. 

Said of things, it may have other significations. 

Ce chateau et ce pare font bien dans That villa and park suit that part of 

cet endroit du paysage, the landscape. 

Ce remede lui a fait du bien, F autre This remedy has done him good, the other 

lui a fait mal, has done him harm. 

Faire mine answers to to assume the appearance. It is said of either 
persons or things. 

Cet homme fait mine de Touloir nous That man seems desirous of speaking 

parler, to us. 

Le temps fait mine de pleuvoir, It looks like rain. 

{(to value, appreciate, 
grand cas, answering to \ to set much value upon, 
nui ( not to value, to contemn, 

are said both of persons and things. 

Xous faisons un tres-grand cas de ce We set great value on that book, and 
livre, et aucun cas de son auteur, none on its author. 

1034. Faire un testament, to write a trill, or have it draicn up by 
a notary, faire un partage, to make a division of property, faire- une 
caisse ou balancer une caisse, to balance a cash-book, ape examples 
of those idiomatic expressions used daily in French, which if not 
well understood would be a perpetual cause of blunders. In the 
I example, "faire une caisse" means literally to make a box or a 
case. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF FAIRE. 465 

Faire banqueroute is to fail in order to defraud creditors. 
Faire faillite is simply to fail through mismanagement or misfor- 
tune, 

Ce marchand a fait banqueroute, That merchant is a bankrupt. 

Ces negociants out faille" deux fois, Those wholesale merchants have /ailed 

twice. 



Banqueroutier, 

Failli, 

Faire les ehoses a demi, 

Faire signe de 1'oeil, 

Faire montre, faire mystere, 

Faire le portrait, 



a bankrupt. 

a broken merchant. 

„~ 4-^ , to do things by halves, 
Y answer to < . . 7 9 ^ 
to wink. 

to show or display, to keep secret, 

to paint likenesses. 



To avoid repetition, faire is frequently used in French to take the 
place cf another verb. 

La bonte produit plus de bien que ne Kindness does more good than harsh- 
lefait l'aigreur, ness. 

Here fait takes the place of the verb produire standing in the 
principal proposition. 

Faire large courroie signifies to stretch a little , "where expense is 
meant. 

Faire concert~is to join others in doing a thing. Faire chorus has 
the same meaning. 

Faire un concert refers to a musical performance. 

1035. Faites moi Famitie, be kind enough, faites moi le plaisir, 
do me the favor, faites moi la grace, for mercy's sake, faites moi 
Fhonneur, honor me with, all have their corresponding expressions 
in English. 

1036. Speaking of persons, besides the meanings already indi- 
cated, faire, followed by the forms of the determinate article, answers 
to the expressions to act like, to play the part, to pretend to be.' 

Cette paysanne fait la belle-dame, et That countrywoman plays the part of 

son lourdaud de mari fait le a lady, and her clownish husband 

grand-seigneur, le gros-dos, affects the important man. 

Cet ignorant fait le savant, tout ane Ignorant as he is, that blockhead affects 

qu'il est (11S5), to be a scholar. 
• 

1037. Faire semblant corresponds with to feign, to simulate, to 
pretend. 

Xous faisons semblant de dormir, We simulate sleep, or pretend to sleep. 



466 GRAMMAR. 

1038. Faire also means to matter, to concern, to help. 

Cela vous fait-il quelque chose ? Does that matter to you ? 

Que vous fait cela a vous t What does that concern you t 

Qu'y pouvez-vous faire? Can you help it? 

1039. Faire repeated, or followed by another verb, signifies to 
cause. 

Je fais faire un habit a la mode, / am having a coat made in the fashion. 

Je leur ai fait ecrire une lettre, / caused them to write a letter. 

Vous les ferez travailler (231), You will make them work. 

1040. Faire attention in French is the same as pay attention in 
English. 

Faites attention a ce que vous dites et Pay attention to what you do and to 
a ce que vous faites, what you say. 

Never say pay ez attention i 'or faites attention. 

Remark. — When conjugated with faire, neuter verbs (87) be- 
coming transitive, will be followed by direct objects (91). 

Faites courir le cheval, Make that horse run. 

Faites dormir Fenfant, Put the child to sleep. 

Faisons parler cette femme, Let us set that woman talking. 

Courir le risque, to run the risk, is an example where the in- 
transitive verb courir is used transitively, le risque being a direct 
object (69). 

Faire les adieux, to bid farewell, is sometimes replaced by dire. 
Nous lui avonsdit adieu pour touj ours, We bade him (or her) a last farewell. 

Faire un dejeuner, faire un diner, may mean either to prepare or 
to partake of those meals. 

Le cuisinier a fait un bon dejeuner, The cook has prepared a good break- 
fast. 
Nous avons fait un bon diner, We had a good dinner. 

Le cuisinier a bien dejeune would answer to, the cook has eaten a 
good breakfast. 

1041. Faire connaissance de, or faire connaissance avec, signifies 
to be acquainted with. 

C'est Thiver dernier que nous fimes It was during last winter that we became 
connaissance avec cette famille, acquainted with that family. 

Avoir connaissance, placed before things, takes the preposition de. 
J'ai connaissance de cette affaire, / know of that affair. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF METTRE. 467 

In calculations of numbers, /aire is to be preferred to Ure (897). 
In French, faire is often employed with the meaning of to procure, 
to cause, used with determinate nouns; — viz.: direct objects. 

Get enfant fait mon bonheur, That child causes my happiness. 

Faire defaut is used idiomatically for to fail, to forsake, 
Faire faute answers to to miss somebody or things. 

Sa memoire lui fit defaut, His (or her) memory failed him (or her). 

Notre enfant nous fait faute, We miss our child. 

Mon canif me fait faute, I miss my penknife. 

Faire faux-bond means to fail in accomplishing an engagement. 

Mon frere qui devait venir m'a fait 3fy brother who was to come has not 

faux-bond, done so. 

Le debiteur qui devait me payer a fait The debtor who teas to pay me has not 

faux-bond, kept his promise. 

Son faux-bond me met dans Tembarras, The non-performance of his engagement 

embarrasses me. 

Faire une entree corresponds with to make appearance. When 
culinary concerns are meant, it means to make a stew. 

L'entree de Tacteur fut imposante, The appearance of the comedian was 

imposing. 
Cette entree de veau est delicieuse, That stew of veal is excellent. 

La cuisiniere a fait une bonne entree, The cook has made a good stew. 



CHAPTER TWEXTY-SECOND. 

Uses and Idioms of Mettre. 

1041 bis. Mettre — literally, in English, to put — enters into the 
composition of many idiomatic expressions of frequent use in French. 



f a m£me, de cote, 

Mettre \ au courant, To - 

au fait, le pied chez quelqu'un, 

40* 



enable, to save, set aside, over- 
rule. 

initiate, instruct. 

communicate something, step 
into a house. 



468 



GRAMMAR. 



Mettre ■ 



fin, sous clef, 

en marge d'un livre, 

le pied dans, le nez dans, etc., 

pied a terre, le pied dans 

l'etrier, 
le pied sur la gorge, le couteau 

a la gorge, 
la tete a la fen£tre, 
le nez partout, la main a tout, 

a la voile, en voiture, en selle, 

en mer, a terre, au vent, 

par terre, en terre (934), 

a l'eau (parlant de navires ou 

de futailles), 
sur pied une personne, une 

armee, 
en surete, en carene, 
a Tabri, aux arrets, 
au soleil, a secher, a blanchir, 
sur le pied de guerre, sur le 

pied de paix, 
a Tombre, 

a Tesprit, en mSmoire, 

au monde, au jour, a Poubli, 

du temps a une chose, 

en ordre, en desordre, en r£- 

volte, 
au renvoi, au rebut, a quia 

(972), 
a Pheure (parlant des mon- 

tres), 
de la mauvaise humeur, de la 

grace, 
en prison, en liberte, au large, 
a mort, aux fers, 
a prix, le prix a une chose, 

a Famende, au pain sec, a 

l'eau, 
en vente, aux enchdres, a 

Tencan, 
la table, la nappe, le couvert, 

a part, en reserve, en requi- 
sition, 
en peril, en danger, a couvert, 
a feu et a sang, au dSsespoir, 

au lit (parlant d'un enfant ou 

d'un malade), 
a l'ordre, a la raison, a 1'aise, 
en penitence, en evidence, 



stop or close, loch up. 

write on the margin of a book. 

have access to, meddle with. 

land or alight, get into a situa- 
tion. 

take advantage of the necessities 
of others. 

look out of the window. 

meddle with every thing, do any 
thing. 

set sail, place in a carriage, 
put on horseback. 

put to sea, land, expose to the. 
wind. 

lay on the ground, place under 
the ground. 

launch, or fill with water. 

give the means of subsistence, 
set on foot an army. 

secure, put in dry dock. 

shelter, place in confinement. 

expose to the sun, dry, bleach. 

place on a war footing, place 
on a peace footing. 

shelter from the sun, or put in 

m jail. 

put in mind, remind. 
m j give birth, bring to light, con- 
sign to oblivion. 

be long in doing a thing. 

arrange, derange, disorganize. 

place a thing for refusal, ruin 

or exhaust, 
set (speaking of a watch or 

timepiece). 
manifest bad disposition, good 

feeling, 
put in jail, set free, 
put to death, put in irons, 
set a price on a thing, write 

prices on things, 
fine, put on bread alone, on 

water, 
put up for sale, put up at 

auction, 
set the table, lay the tablecloth, 

set things on the table, 
set aside, reserve, put in requi- 
sition, 
endanger, secure or shelter, 
put to fire and sword, reduce 

to despair, 
put to bed (speaking of children 

or sick persons). 
subdue, force, set at ease, 
punish, place in view. 



USES AND IDIOMS OP MKTTRE. 



469 



Mettre • 



a la porte, en fuite, en deroute, 

a la raison, en bonne-humeur, 
la peste, la guerre dans, etc., 
en mouvement, en repos, 
en colere, de bonne-humeur, 

en position une personne, 

en position un canon, 

de r amour-propre, de l'orgueil, 

de l'indifference, de la rancune, 

au regime, a la diete, 

en quarantaine un navire ou 
des personnes, 

en pieces, en morceaux, en 
capilotate, 

a cuire, quelque chose au feu, 

la broche, 

a la broche, en broche, 

feu a une maison, feu a un 
canon, 

le feu au marche, 

a la chemise, 

a sec un puit, a sec une per- 
sonne, 

en ceuvre, dedans, 

en souffrance, 
en desarroi, 
en balance, 

confiance en personnes ou 
choses, 

en peine quelqu'un, 

en oubli, 

a dos, 

en pieces, en lambeaux, 

a la question, en question, 

une chose en train, la besogne 
en train, 

le pot au feu, la poule au pot, 

en sauce, en ragout, 

au four, a la glace, 

de 1' argent a Tinter^t, 

au frais {parlant de boissons), 

en frais (parlant de person- 
nes), 

en dance, en mouvement, 

en 6moi, 

au pli (parlant de personnes) , 

en ligne une armee, 

a bas, en joue, a genoux, 

en magasin, en entrepot, en 

vente, 
a l'gcart, en ligne de compte, 
[ a la chaine, 



To 



turn out of door 8, put to /light, 

rout, 
subdue, put in a good humor, 
set division, war among persons, 
set in motion, cause to stop, 
make angry, put in good 

humor, 
enable a person to get a living, 
place a cannon in position, 
show vanity or pride, 
show indifference, show rancor, 
diet a sick person, 
put in quarantine a ship or 

persons, 
destroy, break to pieces. 

cook, or set by the fire, 
set the spit before the fire, 
set a thing on the spit, to spit, 
set fire to a house, fire a cannon. 

forestall the market. 

reduce to beggary. 

dry up a well, exhaust the means 

of a person, 
act, deceive or put in jail, 

cheat, 
let a thing go to decay, 
put things out of place, 
judge and compare things, 

weigh them, 
trust in persons or things. 

cause trouble to somebody, 
forget or abandon, 
set people against a person, 
tear something to pieces, 
torture, doubt, 
set a thing going, stir. 

make soup, live in plenty. 

prepare a dish loiih sauce. 

bake, cool. 

place money at interest. 

cool drinks. 

cause expenses to persons. 

set people stirring, excite them. 

start, astonish. 

subdue, cause toyield (speaking 

of temper). 
put an army in the field, 
put down, level a gun, set on 

the knees, 
store, put on sale. 

set aside, keep account, 
enslave. 



170 



GRAMMAR. 



Mettre 



en fourriere, en lesse, 

le levain, 

le levain au figure, 

sur le trone, 

un cheval au trot, au gallop, 

en demeure (barreau), 

en faction, 

en panne (marine), 

en discussion, en doute, 

en eharte privee, en question, 

en campagne, en terre, en 

marche, 
en poudre, en marmelade, 
au rang, en ligne, au niveau, 
un chapeau, un habit, en selle, 

sa volonte contre, 

en francais, en anglais, 

en garde quelqu'un, 
a la voile, en mer, 



To 



impound or confine trespassers, 

lead, 
mix yeast with paste, 
set a thing going, 
place on the throne, 
set a horse trotting, galloping, 
put in suit (law term). 
place in sentry, 
lay to (marine term). 
discuss, question, doubt, 
seclude pjersons, propose a 

question, 
set on foot, bury, set going. 

pulverize, reduce to jelly. 

place in rank, in file, on a level. 

put on a hat, a coat, sit on a 
saddle. 

set one's will against something. 

translate into French, into Eng- 
lish. 

put a person on his guard. 

set sail, put to sea. 



Remark. — Mettre used reflectively, se mettre, forms a variety of 
expressions, some of which will be given when treating of the 
frequent use made in French of pronominal or reflective verbs 
(1147 ter). 



1042. Mettre a meme is to procure the means of doing something. 
Mettre au courant, to teach others the practice of things. 
Mettre au fait, to inform some one of something. 

Je l'ai mis a meme de faire fortune, I enabled him to make a fortune. 

Nous Tavons mis au courant de ses We have made him acquainted with. hi* 

affaires, business-. 

Je l'ai mis au fait de ce qui se passe, I have told him ofichat is going on. 

In French, mettre is frequently used instead of to set, to use, in 
English. 

lis ont mis tout en ceuvre pour le They used all means to deceive him. 
tromper, 

Mettre en branle corresponds with to communicate impulse, either 
to persons or things. 

Ce seul homme mit en branle toute la That single man stirred up the whole 

nation, nation. 

II faut dix hommes pour mettre en Ten men are required to put that bell 

branle cette cloche, in motion. 

Faire le branle is to dance round. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF METTRE. 471 

Le branle-bas is the preparation made on board men-of-war before 
a fight. 

1043. Mettre le pied sur la gorge is to take advantage of some- 
body. 

Mettre le couteau a la gorge is to force somebody. 

Vous m'avez mis le j,ied sur la gorge, You have taken advantage of me. 
lis m'ont mis le couteau a la gorge They forced me to give up my money. 
pour me faire ceder mon argent, 

1044. Mettre le pied dans is to have access, influence, power. 
Mettre sur pied, to keep in readiness, set on foot. 

Mettre sur le pied, to place or get on a footing. 

lis ont mis pied dans ma maison, They have got a footing in my house. 

La France a mis sur pied une armee France has set on foot an army of three 

de trois cent mille hommes, hundred thousand men. 

Ces bataillons sont sur un pied de Those battalions are on a war footing. 

guerre, 

tdt / i , J F^f/ * i'.*Liii A [ is to have a horse step, trot, amble, or 

Mettre un cheval au i trot, a 1 amble, Y gallop. 

10 16. Mettre par terre, to place on the ground, to set down (934). 
Mettre en terre, to bury, to put in the ground. 

Vous avez mis cet enfant par terre, You placed that child on the ground. 

Nous avons mis ce corps en terre, We buried that corpse. 

Remark. — By analogy, the French will say : 

•Pai laisse tomber ma montre a terre, / dropped my watch on the ground, 

when the floor of a house or the deck of a vessel is meant. In such 
cases, par terre answers to doion, in English. 

Mettre en quatre is used idiomatically for to defeat, to spoil. 

Se mettre en quatre, to express self-devotion. 

L'ennemi a ete mis en quatre, The enemy has been defeated. 

II se mettrait en quatre pour ses amis, He wotdd do any thing for his friends. 

Practice will complete the knowledge of what we have summarily 
indicated in the foregoing lines. 



472 



GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-THIRD. 



Uses and Idioms of Prendre. 

The uses and idioms of prendre, to take, are also very numerous 
in the French language : 



1046 

bis. 

Prendre •< 



patience, conge, un conge, 

peine, en bonne part, 

en bien, en nial, froidement, 

courage, de la force, ombrage, 

un rhume, la fievre, la peste, 

le deuil, le noir, la poste, 

un parti, une resolution, 
bien ou mal une chose, 
de force, par ruse, par la dou- 
ceur, 
le the, le cafe, 

une lecon, avis, 

un verre, un coup, un doigt, 

etc., 
racine (parlant de personifies ou 

de choses), 
la diligence, le bateau-a-va- 

peur, 
le chemin-de-fer, le canal, 
un air [parlant de personnes ou 

de ch-oses), 
Pair, de l'humeur, 
le mors aux dents, 
la mouche, 
peur de quelque chose, le che- 

min, 
terre, vent, 
pied, chez-soi, 
tour, son sac et ses quilles, 

un renseignement, un diner, 
possession, en main la conver- 
sation, 
mesure, en consideration, 
une mesure, prendre pour, 

en amour, en affection, ou 

prendre gout, affection, 
la debandade, 
la defile, 



To 



have patience, take leave, have 

a furlough, 
take trouble, in good pari, 
take well, take ill, take coolly, 
take courage, gain strength, take 

umbrage or to distrust, 
take cold, catch the fever or 

plague, 
put on mourning, black, travel 

by mail, 
decide, take a resolution, 
take a thing well or ill. 
take by force, by cunning, by 

mildness. 
partake of meals called tea, 

coffee, 
take a lesson, advice, 
drink a glass, a dram, a sip of 

something, 
take root (speaking of persons 

or things). 
take the stage, the steamboat. 

take the railroad, the canal, 
assume an appearance. 

air one's self, get offended. 

run away (said of horses). 

become angry (said of persons). 

become afraid of something, go 
on. 

land, get wind of. 

get a footing, take home. 

take turn, depart bag and bag- 
gage. 

take information, a dinner. 

take possession, lead the conver- 
sation. 

measure something, consider. 

take a decision, mistake one 
thing for another. 

fall in love, become attached. 

disband suddenly, in disorder, 
disband individually, each in 
turn. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF PRENDRE. 



473 



Prendre 



r le change, 
les cliamps, la fuite, 
couleur, tournure, 

offense, en horreur, 

vengeance, 

le vol (parlanl d'oiseaux), 

Pessor (parlant de personnes), 

la robe, 

le froc, 

Tepee, 

a coeur, 

confiance, une maison, une 

chaise, 
a rebours, 

conime il faut, 

une ville, une province, un 

pays, 
un guide, pour guide, 
connaissance de (1041), fin, 

un inorceau, un repas, une 

bouchee, 
la goutte, quoi-que-ce-soit, 
un bain, une douche, 
pretexte, 
occasion, 
en croupe, 
femme ou mari, 
haleine, 

du repos, du loisir, a, coeur, 
en haine, 
Pheure, le temps, 

un etat, la plume, 



exemple sur, ou suivre Pex- 

emple (901), 
un logement, 
l'habit, le voile, 
medecine, mal, 
de P argent, 

le vent, 

Pordre, un ordre, les ordres, 

vue, 

du mepris, 

sur le fait, en flagrant delit, 

la route, le chemin, 
la deroute, la course, 
bon gre, mal gre, 
au colet, a la gorge, 
[ un voleur, un oiseau, 



Toi 



take the wrong scent. 

run away, take /light. 

assume the appearance of some- 
thing. 

take offence, take a distaste to. 

take revenge. 

take flight (speaking of birds). 

soar (speaking of persons). 

become a magistrate, a lawyer. 

become a monk. 

become a soldier. 

take an affection for. 

take confidence, take a house, a 
chair. 

use in the wrong way (persons 
or things). 

take in a proper manner. 

take a town, a province, a coun- 
try. 

take a guide, take for a guide. 

become acquainted with, come to 
a)i end. 

eat a morsel, take a meal, a 
mouthful. 

drink a dram, any thing. 

take a bath, a shower-bath. 

raise pretences. 

seize the opportunity. 

take behind on horseback. 

take a wife or husband, marry. 

take breath. 

take rest, leisure, at heart. 

hate. 

set a timepiece, use time op- 
portunely. 

make choice of a profession, 
take the pen. 

take care (used for persons or 
things). 

take as model, follow the ex- 
ample, 

take a lodging. 

take the cowl, the veil. 

take physic, become sick. 

steal, or become substitute in the 
a rmy. 

take the wind. 

receive an order, take orders (of 
priesthood). 

take sight. 

feel like contempt. 

catch one in the act, unex- 
pectedly. 

take the road, the direction. 
I run away, take flight, run. 

agree, disagree. 
I seize by the neck, by the throat, 
[ catch a thief, a bird. 



474 



GRAMMAR. 



part, parti, a part, 
note, compte, en conipte, 

en entreprise, un forfait, 
du tabac, de Peau-de-vie, 
de l'argent a l'interet, 
plaisir, peine, 

une colere, une impatience, 
une manie, une habitude, 

Prendre *| place, une place (1185), 

sur soi, avec soi, 

a ferme, a bail (351), 

a credit, au comptant, 

de Thumeur, une colere, 
a grippe, 
charge de, 
position, au mot, 



take party side icith, take aside. 

take note of, number, take an 
account. 

undertake, undertake a job. 

snuff, take brandy. 

borrow money at interest. 

take delight, trouble. 

be angry, be impatient. 

get a mania or habit of some- 
thing. 

To \ rank one's self, take a seat, a 
fortified town. 

upon one's self, take with. 

let, lease. 

purchase on credit, purchase 
with cash. 

get in a bad humor. 

take dislike to (persons). 

take charge of. 

take a position, take at one's 
icord. 



Remarks on some of the foregoing expressions. 

1047. Prendre le the, prendre le cafe, is to sit at the meals called 
in French by those names, — the first in the morning, the last in the 
evening. 

Prendre du th6, prendre du cafe, is to drink tea or coffee. 

Nous prenons le cafe apres le diner, We take coffee after dinner, and tea 

et le the sur le soir, towards evening. 

Prendrez-vous du cafe ou du the* ? Will you have coffee or tea ? 

II lit le journal pendant le the, Me reads the newspaper at tea. 

1048. Prendre un air, prendre Fair, can only be used in speak- 
ing of persons. 

Cet homme prend un air mechant, et That man's countenance is bad, and the 

F autre prend Fair d'un malStru, other seems an ill-mannered fellow. 

De bonne qu'elle me paraissait, cette From good, the appearance of that 

affaire m'a 1'air d'etre mauvaise. affair turns bad. 

Referring to persons, prendre Fair may have another acceptation. 
Nous prenons Fair sous cet ombrage, We cool ourselves under that shade. 

1049. Speaking of persons, prendre racine signifies to gain 
ground. 

Ce jeune homme prend racine au bar- That young man gains ground at the 
reau, bar. 

The same expression means to grow, to take root, when vegeta- 
tion is meant. 



Ces arbres ont pris racine, 



Those trees have taken root. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF PRENDRE. 



1050. Prendre feu is said of persons and things. 



475 



Calme et impassible auparavant, ar- Coming to thin part of his speech, calm 
rivant a cette partie de son dis- and impassionate before, the orator 

cours, Torateur aussitot prit feu, immediately glowed with fire. 

Le navire prit feu a la minute, In a moment the ship was on fire. 

1051. Prendre le mors aux dents, to run away, is only said of 
horses. With the same meaning, s'emporter may be used for both 
men and horses. 

Prendre la mouche, stung with anger, or stung by flies, may also 
refer both to men and animals. 

Notre cheval a pris le mors aux dents, Our horse ran away. 

Cet homme prend la mouche des qu'on That man takes offence when joked with, 

le plaisante, et s'emporte violem- and flies into a passion with every- 

ment contre tout le monde, body. 

1052. Prendre le change is to act under false information im- 
parted purposely, to be befooled. Donner le change, on the contrary, 
means to befool others. 

La police prit le change. Au lieu de The policemen took the wrong scent. 

fouiller l'homme arrete, qui 6tait Instead of searching the man ar- 

le veritable voleur, ces agents rested, who was the real thief, those 

credules en poursuivirent un autre credulous officers ran after another 

que celui-ci leur designa. Leur whom this fellow pointed to them. 

donnant ainsi le change, le ruse Thus befooling them, the rogue 

fripon echappa a la justice, escaped. 

1053. Prendre le vent, among sailors, is to meet with winds. 
Prendre du vent, speaking of wines, is to get sour. 
Prendre vent, speaking of things, refers to their discovery. 

Nous primes les vents d'Est aux iles At the Balearic Islands we met easterly 

Baleares, winds. 

Ce vin la a pris du vent, That wine has turned sour. 

Je pris vent de cette affaire hier au / got wind of that affair yesterday 

soir (SS4), evening. 

1054. Prendre ordre is to receive orders from commanders. 
Prendre un ordre, in commercial transactions, is to take a com- 
mission. 

Prendre les ordres is to take ecclesiastical orders. 

Avant d'agir, ce soldat prit ordre de Before acting, that soldier took ordert 

son chef, from his commander. 

Ce voyageur de commerce prendra That travelling agent will take a com- 

volontiers un ordre, mission. 

Hier ce jeune pretre prit les ordres, Yesterday that young clergyman took 

orders. 
41 



476 GRAMMAR. 

1055. Prendre signifies to freeze, to coagulate, to stick. 

L'eau que j'avais dans mon pot-a-eau The water I had in my pitcher it 

est glacee, ou prise, frozen. 

Le sangdans^ebassin est pris, on fige, The blood in that basin is coagulated. 

Cette cole a pris, celle-la ne veut pas This glue sticks, that will not. 

prendre, 

Caille, coagulated, may be said of milk and blood : fige is said of 
blood, icax, oil, etc. 

1056. Prendre sometimes has the acceptation of to overtake. 

La nuit nous pritaux environs deVer- Night overtook us in the neighborhood 

sailles, of Versailles. 

Nous fumes pris par la pluie apres After our departure we were overtaken 

notre depart, by rain. 

Le jour nous prit a une lieue de la, Daylight overtook us at a league from 

thence. 

We might also say : 

Au premier coup de canon la peur le At the first shot, fear overtook him. 
prit, 

1057. Prendre, in French, is used with reference to customs, " 
habits in people, or fashions. 

Ces usages ne prendront pas Those custom* cannot be maintained. 

Cette petite fille prend Thabitude du That little girl is getting into the habit 

bavardage, of chattering. 

Cette mode prendra parce qu'elle est That fashion will become popular, be- 

absurde, cause it is absurd. 

1058. Prendre garde, in French, means to take care, in Eng- 
lish. Used affirmatively, followed by infinitives, it requires the pre- 
position de before the indirect complement (TO). Always used as a 
warning, it expresses restraint, not negation. 

Prenez garde de tomber, Take care lest you fall. 

Prenons garde de nous noyer, Let us be careful not to drown. 

Prends garde de m'ecrire, Eemember to write to me. 

In French, the preceding sentences are elliptical (854). Used as 
an indirect complement, the infinitive is a substitute for a subjunc- 
tive, preceded by the conjunctive expressions de peur que, de crainte 
que, answering to lest, for fear, in English (736, 744, 816). Their 
signification in both languages is affirmative. 
They stand for : 

Prenez garde de peur que vous ne tombiez ; 
Prenez garde de crainte que vous ne vous noyiez ; 

where ne, in the incidental proposition, has no negative meaning 
(816)* 

* For grammatical fallacies, see Fasquelle's Method, pp. 195-3, 452-4. 



USES AND IDIOMS OF PRENDRE. 477 

1059. Used negatively, prendre garde requires ne, pas, before the 
infinitive complement of that expression, with the preposition a or 
<fc(763). 

Prenez garde d ne pas tomber, ou de Take care not to fall. 

ne pas tomber, 
Prenons garde a ne pas nous noyer, ou Let us take care not to be drowned, 

de ne pas nous noyer, 

In French, as in English, the meaning of the above sentences is 
negative: therefore, to express a negative meaning, do not say affirm- 
atively, in accordance with some grammars, 

Mon fr&re a bien pris garde de dechirer ses habits, 
literally, My brother has been careful about the tearing of his clothes. 

Garder, with the meaning of to keep, to watch, conjugated reflect- 
ively, se garder, corresponds with to abstain from. 

Je me garderai bien de faire cela, I will abstain from doing this. 

Gardons-nous du mensonge, Let us abstain from lies. 

To give more force to warnings, those verbs are sometimes used 
in the negative form (1178 bis). 

Au cas ou vous ne preniez pas garde, Should you not take care, you will fall. 

vous tomberez, 

Si vous ne vous gardez pas du men- If you do not abstain from lying, you 

songe, vous y succomberez, will fall into the habit of it. 

1060. When followed by indirect complements composed of proper 
nouns, determinate substantives or adverbs, prendre garde takes the 
preposition a or the contraction au (317). 

Prenez garde a Pierre, Mind, or distrust, Peter. 

Prends garde a ton ennemi, Beware of thy enemy. 

Prenons garde au mal, Let us beware of evil. 

With direct or indirect complements and the verb prendre we will 

say: 

Indeterminately, Prendre peine ou «nc To take trouble, or a great trouble. 

grande peine, 
Determinately, Prendre la peine de To take the trouble of coming. 

venir, 
Partitively, Prendre de la peine, To take some trouble. 

In French, prendre expresses combustion (1050), viz.: to burn. 
Le feu a pris, ou n'a pas pris, The fire burns, or does not burn. 

With the pronoun en, of it, for prefix, conjugated reflectively, 
prendre corresponds with to call to account (1002), or to grumble, to 
catch, etc. 
II s'en prend contre tout le monde, He calls everybody to account. 



478 



GRAMMAR. 



Prendre une chose par le bon ou par le mauvais e6t6 answers to 
take a thing at the best, at the worst. 

Prendre la fuite is to run away ; prendre la gale, to catch the itch. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FOURTH. 

Uses and Idioms of Tenir in French. 

Tenir, to hold, to keep, in English, has many acceptations in 
French. 

hold a high position. 

give a living. * 

keep a house, a hotel, a coffee- 
house. 

hold a council, an audience. 

keep clean, dirty, in order. 

keep open, closed, secret. - 

keep an eye, company. 

connive with, govern. 

keep pace, stand firm. 

holdfast, off, steady. 

keep warm, cold, at the freezing- 
point. 

have a stand in a fair or market. 

keep school, hoarding-school or 
hoarding-house. 

hehave well or ill. 



1060 

bis. 
Tenir 



une place distinguee, un rang, 

du pain, 

une maison, un hotel, un cafe, 

conseil, audience, 

propre, sale, bien, 

ouvert, ferme, secret, 

l'oeil, compagnie, 

la main, la haute-main, 

pied, tete, 

coup, loin, ferme, 

chaud, froid, a la glace, 

foire, ou marche, 
ecole, pension, 

une bonne ou mauvaise con- 

duite, 
de la folie, de la raison, 
table ouverte, table d'h6te, To 
place, lieu, 
la tete haute, 
parole, prom esse, 
en joue, 
un langage convenant ou in- 

convenant, 
Pordre, 

la bourse, la grenouille, 
un ordre, 
les renes, le gouvernail d'un 

etat, 
le gouvernail d'un navire, 
les renes d'un cheval, 
la chandelle, 
de ses ancetres, de la nature 

(914), 
de vers soi, a soi, 
le prix, 
compte, un compte, 



savor of folly, of reason. 

keep open table, public tahle. 

stand for, take the place of. 

hold up the head. 

keep word. 

aim at. 

hold proper or improper lan- 

• guage. 
maintain order, 
hold the strings of the purse, 
have an order, 
govern, rule a nation. 

steer a ship. 

drive a horse. 

act to benefit others. 

inherit, partake of the nature. 

keep to one's, for one's self. 

control prices. 

retaliate, keep an account. 



Tenir 



USES AND IDIOMS OF TENIR. 479 

' un livre a la main, f hold a book in hand. 

les livres d' un negoeiant, keep the books of a merchant. 

la nier, la terre, «, J command on sea, on land. 

campagne, la campagne, | keep the field, hold the country. 

sous clef, sous verrou, j have under lock and key. 

pret, a l'ecart, [ keep ready, keep aside. 



1061. Tenir is used also with the signification of to be attached, 
with reference to persons or things. When behavior is concerned, 
it means to liold. ♦ 

Je tiens a mon argent et a ma vie, I am much attached to my money and 
mais je tiens encore plus a ma my existence, but more so to my 

famille. family. 

II tient une mauvaise conduite, His conduct is bad. 

1062. To express a strong feeling of tenacity in the will, tenir is 
used in French; it then corresponds with to insist, in English. 

Je tiens a ce qu'on m'obeis ifri upon being obeyed. 

Tenez-vous a ce que je parte ? Do you insist on my departure ? 

Tient-on a notre renvoi? Must ice be sent away? 

1063. With reference to colors, tenir expresses their being fast 
or otherwise. 

Cette couleur rouge tiendra, j'en suis That red color trill be fast, mother, I 
sure, maman: mais la verte a- am sure, but the green icill not. 

coup-sur ne tiendra pas, 

Le bleu tient uiieux que le noir, Blue colors are faster than black. 

1064. In the following example, tenir corresponds with to be. 

Dans cette malheureuse circonstance In this sorrowful occasion I will be a 
je vous tiendrai lieu de pere, father to you. 

1065. Tenir bon means to hold fast, to maintain a position. 

Cet enfant tient bon suspendu a cette That child ftotcfa fast suspended to that 

corde. rope. 

I/ennetui tient bon dans sa position, The enemy maintains his position. 

Nous tiendrons bon jusqu'au bout, W* will maintain it to the last. 

Se tenir, to keep one's self] has for direct object its reflective pro- 
noun: therefore this verb must be followed by indirect complements 
J : I when complements are required by the meaning. 

Nous nous tiendrons prets a partir, We will keep ourselves in readiness for 

departure. 
Us se tiendront (Tune maniere conve- They will keep themselves in a proper 

nable, manner. 

Tiens-toi en mesure? Keep or stand ready f 

Se tenir, used idiomatically, may signify to be, in English. 

lis N tiennent satisfaits de cela, They are satisfied with that. 

41* 



480 GRAMMAR. 

Se bien teuir, se mal tenir, are susceptible of many acceptations 
summarily indicated (1171), which practice, in reading, will teach 
more fully than we can within the narrow limits of this work. 

Se serrer la main (1183) is to shake hands. 

Se serrer le ventre corresponds with the expression to be pinched 
for food. 

Serrer les rangs is a military command to have soldiers get into 
close order. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FIFTH. ♦ 

Different Significations in some Verbs. 

1065 bis. Referring to persons or things, aimer means to love, to 
delight in, to like, to be fond of Having infinitives for complements, 
aimer takes the preposition a (1177, 760). 

II aime a causer et nous aimons a rire, He likes to talk, and ice like to laugh. 

Vous aimez a jouer et il aime a etudier, You delight in play, he in study. 

On aime a etre estime des gens-de- We are glad to be esteemed by honest 

bien, people. 

Remark. — Aimer quelqu'un de tout son cceur, de toute son Sme, 
de tout son pouvoir, means to love with all one's heart or power. 

Aimer, in the future, corresponds very frequently with to wish, in 
English. 
J'aimerais qu'il le fit, / wish he teas doing it. 

1066. With reference to persons or things, porter (1177) signifies 

to carry or bring, to bear or shoiv, to wear or to be with, to be inclined, 

to strike or make. We may say idiomatically with this verb: 

Porter les armes pour son pays, To fight for one's country. 

Porter une sante, un toast, porter en- To drink a health, offer a toast, to envy. 

vie (892), 

Porter le bat, la charge, le fardeau, To be saddled (speaking of people). 

1067. It means to carry, when expressing the action of taking 

persons or things from one place to another. 

Ou portez-vous ce malade? Whither are you carrying that rick 

man ? 
Ou porte-t-on cet argent? Whither are they carrying that money t 

Porteriez-vmiB un aupsi lourd fardeau? Could y<m sorry so heavy a load f 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 481 

1068. To bear or shoic, with reference to testimony, marks of 
blows, the stigma of vice, good or bad physiognomical expression. 

Cet homme porte un faux temoignage, That man bears false witness. 

Cet enfant porte encore la marque des This child still bears the marks of 

coups. blows. 

Ce visage porte l'empreintfi de l'ivro- That face lias the marks of drunken- 

gnerie, ness. 

1069. To wear, when used with reference to wearing-apparel, or 

clothing actually in use. 

II porte un habit et un chapeau noir, He wears a black coat and black hat. 

Je porte des bottes neuves, / wear new boots. 

Porterez-vous un bel habit neuf? Will you wear a handsome nexo coat? 

1070. To be with, speaking of gestation in animals. 

Cette vache a porte deux veaux depuis That cow has calved twice since she 
qu'elle etait genisse, was a heifer. 

1071. To be inclined, referring to moral or physical propensities. 

Cet homme est porte au mensonge et That man is inclined to lying and 
a la gourmandise, gluttony. 

1072. To strike, with reference to blows. 

II lui porta un coup mortel avec son He struck him a mortal blow with his 
epee, sicord. 

Porter aux anges is an idiomatical expression, meaning to raise to 
sublimity, to transport. 
Cette musique porte aux anges, That music transports. 

Porter les culottes, said of women, signifies to govern, to wear the 
breeches. 

Referring to riding, porter en croupe means carrying double. 
Ce cheval peut porter en croupe, That horse can carry double. 

1073. Connaitre signifies to be acquainted with. In both lan- 
guages, this active or transitive verb is used in connection with 
persons or things (77). 

Connaissez-vous cette dame? Do you know that lady? 

Connait-il cette science? Does he know that science? 

Connaissons-nous nous-memes, Let us know ourselves. 

1074. Savoir, to knoio, is used with reference to things alone. 

Savez-vous le francais? (330), Do you know French ? 

Sait-il l'arithmetique ? Does he know arithmetic? 

Savons-nous nos lecons? Do we knoio our lessons? 

Therefore, speaking of things, we may say : 

Savez-voug le francais, on Connaissez-vous le francaii? 



GRAMMAR. 

But speaking of persons, we could not say: Savez-vous ce monsieur 
francais? for, Do you know (or, are you acquainted with) that French 
gentleman ? 

Savour is used frequently with ne, instead of pouvoir, answering 
to can in English. 

s ne saurions le faire, We could not do it. 

In such idiomatic cases the second negation pas is not needed 
I 821 bis). 

Xe savoir que dire, ne savoir que faire, answering to not able to 
say. unable to do, are cases where que, in French, is used idiomatic- 
ally instead of quelle chose dire, quelle cliose faire (815). 

The desire of conciseness, clearness, and harmony, leads to such 
ellipses (855). 

Entendre, also, may be used for savoir. 

Ce gaillard entend son affaire, That fellow knows his business, 

Connaitre son monde signifies to know those ice deal with. 
Savoir son monde is to know how to behave properly in society. 

Ce jeune-homme connait son monde, That young man knows how to act in 

the world. 

Montr er in French, to show in English, is used sometimes instead 
of to teach. 

Je lui montre les mathematiques, le / teach him mathematics, Greek and 
gree et le latin, Latin. 

With reference to duels, se rendre sur le terrain corresponds with 
to go to the duelling-ground. 

Les adversaires accompagnes de lenrs Accompanied by their seconds, the tico 
temoins serendirentsurle terrain, parties met on the duelling-ground. 

Je ne me suis jamais rendu sur le I never fought a duel. 
terrain, 

1075. Expressing will, vouloir, having for direct complement a 
verb in the infinitive, a noun, or a pronoun, has the signification of 
to mean, to intend, to wish, to ask, to consent, etc. 

Que voulez-vous dire? What do you mean? 

Que vent cet homme? What does that man want? 

Que veut-il manger? What does he intend to eat? 

Que veut-elle? What does she wish ? 

Oii veut-elle aller? Where does she wish to go? 

With the prefix en, vouloir requires indirect objects, meaning to 
have or bear a grudge, in English. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 483 

Cet homme m'en veut d' avoir dit vrai, That man has a grudge against me for 

telling the truth. 
Us m'en veulent d'en sayoir plus qu' They hate me because I am more 

BOX -£•:.$ . learned than they. 

Les ignorants en veulent toujours au Ignorant people always hear a grudge 

n'nst scholars. 

Preceded by the pronoun se as indirect object, vouloir expresses 

sn veulent, Those men have a grudge against each 

other. 

Conjugated reflectively, the objective pronouns are also indirect 
.iplements, answering to a moi, a toi, a lui, k elle, etc. (74). 

Je m'en voudrais &' avoir fait eela, /would be sorry to have done that. 

10? b. Having for direct complement a verb in the infinitive, aller, 
\ in either language indicat future; — viz.: that an 

action is about to take place. 

is lire et ecrire, / am going to read and write. 

B ailons sortir, We are going out. 

II va se baigner, H-. & going to bathe. 

lOt 7. With the meaning of to come, having for direct complement 
a verb in the infinitive, venir indicates also an action to take place 
soon. 

Je viens parler a votre pere. I come to speak with your father. 

Xous venons diner avee v e#au to dine with you. 

Vei>. itr, may correspond with to have, in English. 

3 I living to come, venir may be used in French with the meaning 
of to 

II nous vint (on survint) deux nou- We had two other visitors. 

veaux visiteurs, 

H nous vient tous les jours beaucoup Many people come here every day to 

de monde, see us. 

Tenir en aide is to help, to assist. Yenir apres-coup is to come too 
late. 

Decoudre means to unrip; en d6coudre, used idiomatically, to speak 
\rt\f- f somebody or something. 

After a digression, the speaker may use the familiar idiomatic 
expression: Jen reviens a mes moutons, I return to my subject; 
literally: I return to my sheep. 

Revenir may be used to express a right. 

II vous revient encore cent franc3, You have a right to one hundred franct 

more. 



484 GRAMMAR. 

En venir, to come to, takes indirect objects preceded by the pre- 
position a. 
J'en viens a mon affaire, I come to the point. 

107S. Having for indirect complement infinitives preceded by the 
preposition pour, answering to the prepositive expression afin de, 
venir has the same signification indicated in the preceding number. 

Je viens pour parler a votre pere, / come (in order) to speak with your 

father. 
Nous venons afin de diner avec vous, We come to dine with you. 

Remark. — In both languages pour, afin de, in order, may be 
dropped without prejudice to the meaning, as shown in the preceding 
elliptical examples (1077). 

Followed by the preposition de, preceding an infinitive, venir ex- 
presses a past just accomplished. 

Je viens de parler a votre pere, I have just spoken to your father. 

Nous venons de diner avec eux, We have just dined with them. 

With reference to persons or things, the compound verb revenir 
may mean to return, to come to. 

Ce soldat revient dans son pays, That soldier returns to his country. 

Cet objet revient a cent francs, That thing comes to one hundred francs. 

Ce cheval revient a trois cents dollars, That horse comes to (or costs) three Awn- 

dred dollars. 

With the same meaning in both languages it is said: 

II revient a la vie, a la vertu, a Fhon- He returns to life, to virtue, to honor. 
neur, 

Venir is sometimes used with the meaning of to occur, to happen. 

II me vint a Tesprit de partir sur-le- It occurred to me to go at once. 
champ, 

Joindre means to unite or catch (936 bis). 

Joignons nos forces aux leurs, Let us unite our forces with theirs. 

lis courent si vite que nous ne pou- They run so fast that we cannot catch 
vons les joindre, them. 

1019. With reference to persons, aller trouver signifies to go for, 
to meet. 

Allez trouver le m^decin, Go to the phyricia*. 

Venez me trouver chez-moi, Meet me at my house. 

Allons les trouver, Let us go and meet them. 

Referring to things, aller trouver answers to go and find, or seek. 

Allez trouver l'argent qu'il vous faut, Go and seek the money you need. 



r:7T2L3 2Nr ?:}y:i::i:::v5 in s:?:i -z?.zs Ml 



10>0. ..zz^.Zt-i ~:zz ifr^.z? :r :.z_zr5, i....rr iz-er.zrz. rn^:jrr 



J-.'J.i: ::-:::: ^ ziiir-::-. Gvfwrt 

il-L-:jiZ : " t r: - r : . f - : :..>,: :t.. Sand ^r Ai asti rj . 

Alles prata U T»dbe c<L fc cfceral, &* «kdf*Aeh tie com mmd hav*u 

10*1. 



: ir 5 rr:.::.5 Artaj n mmmJrmL 

I t:s :--r-:-i.5. r.-i rv,".; ;-'■.,-, ; r.x- ;..-■; Jm. 



10*1 

frre-jf :•: inizzi:c r^izr?-. Izr i;:::z 7i::7^r.i :j zzis t-tt: il— 2.75 
in 1 llr* :~ : i-r-rz:*.. — .-- ::::tt. :i/ >..:,:V- .• :ir :±tT r.i&si-r, zzf 

A'_:It:. :. : -. . ; '.-.::.:•*. is zsri sizztZzzztS ::r t^: , v". 



'.i-i.:if i'.-iZ&r.'.z.. Z:,~u< :V.-r :;■.,•-; :/,., r: :/:' '... 

In the fi HLCg otn g exa mpkrS , we see that,, in French, water me 

:■-'>,./ :r :,: ; .f. iz, Ii^^:. iz^-frizz :,; vi.v:L^. ;.; ::-/:■:. 

alir^Ts implying eofwlwMMi, S~? FasqaelL?*' Mi e ifc rn l, pa^e 13&-& 

I:t:t:::t iz zzf :':...".:: ;i5r ; . ~zz l ii::::: zzr:izzz,z ~f ziij 



T% <sr* IbImmj Ofll twists tojoiZ. 
Ji^/ iKre ;,te ear to &«« 



rrizz :.: :: :.-/:■:. izzziifi 






i::z:z: :z-;.zzz 
, Mener 



I:. : :=: ".l :--=i-= 


: ~ f . 1 zi L-.i : r. . : : ; - j .—r-i ;\.< / :■■<;. '■, , 


10>3. 

ii«:~r. iz Ezriisz. 


7 '.7 :-:. iz F:fz:z. ii.; zz T ; --.z: : 



486 GRAMMAR. 

Cette femine inene son mari par le nez, That woman governs her husband. 

The genius of the two languages, in those cases, agrees in ideas, 
not in expressions. 

1084. Only said of things to be removed, oter signifies to take off, 
to take away, to- clear. 

Mon fils, otez votre chapeau, My son, take off your hat. 

Otez ce livre de devant moi, Take away that book from before me. 

Que la servante ote la table, Let the servant-woman clear the table. 

In the preceding cases, enlever might take the place of oter, when 
the removal of objects is meant. 

Therefore, without change in the meaning, we might use oter or 
enlever. 

Otez (ou, enlevez) la table, Clear the table. 

Otez (ou, enlevez) ce livre de devant Remove that book from before me. 
moi, 

But we could not say, enlevez votre chapeau, with the meaning of 
to take off, when the hat is on the head. In French d€couvrez-vous 
is to be preferred. 

Accordingly, we might say: 

Otez (on, enlevez) votre chapeau de Take off your hat from that table. 
dessus la table, 

With reference to persons, oter means to go away, to withdraw. 

Monsieur, 6tez-vous de la, je vous en Sir, go away from there, I entreat you. 
prie, 

When the removal of objects is meant, emporter answers to to bring 
away (1051). 

Otez ce livre de-dessus la cheminSe, Take aicay that book from the mantel- 
et emportez-le dans la biblio- piece, and carry it back to the 
theque, d*ou vous l'avez pris, library, whence you took it. 

Referring to the service of the table, servir signifies to bring in, 
to set on the table. 

Messieurs, le diner est servi, Gentlemen, dinner is on the table. 

On nous servit un magnifique diner, A fine dinner was brought in. 

La table fut servie avec choix et avec The table was provided with choice and 
profusion, profusion. 

Chercher, to seek, when followed by infinitives, requires the pre- 
position a. 

II cherche d, me perdre, He seeks to ruin me. 

Nous cherchons d parvenir, We seek success. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 487 

In French, etre d la recherche may take the place of chercher, answer- 
ing to, in English, to be on the look-out. 

1085. In a commercial acceptation, faillir answers to to fail, to 

break down. 

Ce negociant a deja failli deux fois, That merchant has already failed twice. 

Verbs in the infinitive, direct complements of faillir, always ex- 
press actions on the verge of accomplishment but remaining unac- 
complished. In such cases, faillir has the meaning of to be near, 
to be on the point, to be on the verge or brink. 

Nous avons failli tomber, We have been near falling. 

Elle a failli se noyer, She teas on the point of drowning. 

J'ai failli me rompre le cou, / was on the verge of breaking my neck. 

\tctx.- -U • lil j j-t? -u ( Nous avons 6te pres de tomber (918). 

Which might be rendered in French, «,, ., .. , r . . , v ' 

° . -c t , ' < ±iile etait sur le point de se nover. 

as in English: ) T , . ,., * J \ 

° ( J ai ete au moment de me rompre le cou. 



The adverbial expressions 



1086. f Peu s'en faut, Little is needed, required, or 

wanted, 

Peu s'en est fallu, Little was needed, required, 
or wanted, 

Peu s'en faudra, Little will be needed, required, 
or wanted, 

connected with verbs preceded by que or ne used idiomatically, viz., 
without negative meaning, refer also to actions on the verge of accom- 
plishment but remaining unaccomplished. 

Peu s'en faudra s'il netombe, Little will be needed for him to fall. 

Peu s'en est fallu qu'il ne tombat, Little was needed for him to fall. 

Used negatively, those expressions have the same meaning of want 
of accomplishment. 

Peu s'en sera fallu s'il ne tombe pas, Little will have been wanting for him 

to fall. 
Peu s'en faudra s'il ne tombe pas, Little will be wanted if he does not 

fall. 

10ST. Eester, neuter verb, means to dwell, to reside, to live (87, 
721, 725). 

Je reste dans cette maison, / dwell in that house. 

Nous restons a New York, We reside or live in Neio York. 

II reste chez son pere, He lives with his father. 

Used unipersonally, the same verb answers in English to to have 
or to spare (103). 

II nous reste encore une chance, We have yet a chance. 

Vous avez un dollar de reste, You have a dollar to spare or left. 

42 



488 GRAMMAR. 

The adverbial expression de reste answers in English to the words 
left or to spare. 

Tarder, neuter verb, to tarry, to delay, conjugated unipersonally, 
corresponds with to long (105). 

H me tarde de voir et d'embrasser ma / long to see and clasp my mother in my 

mere, arms. 

Si nous tardons d'arriver, excusez- Should we delay in coming, excuse us. 

nous (706),. 

S'attarder is to be belated, to be behind time. This verb is essen- 
tially reflective (07). 

Si nous nous attardons, nous n'arrive- Should we delay too long, tee shall not 
rons pas a temps, arrive in time. 

lOSS. Connected with persons, conjugated passively, devenir, 
another neuter verb, signifies to become, to turn, in English (82). 

Quest devenu votre cousin? What has become of your cousin? 

II est en France, ou il est devenu avo- He is in France, and has turned lawyer, 
cat, 

Quitter, laisser, active or transitive verbs, are said of persons or 
things, meaning to leave, to discontinue or suspend for a time, un- 
less the contrary be expressed by complements. 

Yous avez quitte (ou laisse) vos pa- You have left your parents. 

rents, 
Nous avons quitte (ou laisse) nos We have suspended our studies. 

etudes, 
II nous quittent (ou nous laissent) They leave us forever. 

pour toujours, 

10S9. Besides the idea of parting, in both languages, aban- 
donner, to abandon, expresses a breach or abandonment of duty. 

Cet enfant a abandonne" son pere et sa That child has abandoned his father 

mere, and mother. 

Vous abandonnez vos etudes pour le You forsake your studies for amuse- 

jeu, ments. 

Cet hommes abandonnerent la vertu, Those men abandoned virtue. 

1090. When the cause of discontinuance is discouragement, in- 
ability, or impossibility, renoncer, in French, corresponds with to 
give up in English. 

B renonce a se faire mgdecin, He gives up physic. 

1091. When animal locomotion is meant, marcher means to tcalk. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 489 

L'homme marche arec not! Man' a vcalk is imposing. 

Le bcenf marche pesamment, The ox trails heavily. 

enfant marche mal, That child walks badly. 

Referring to locomotives or machinery of any description, marcher 
corresponds with to go, to work. 

locomotive ne marche pas bien, That locomotive does not work welL 

tte machine marchd bien. That machinery goes well. 

Ce batean-a-vapenr marche mal, That steamboat is a slow runner. 

Ma montre ne marche pas, My watch has stopped. 

Speaking of saili^ ■ sail. 

Ce navire marche mal, on est mi man- That ship sails poorly. 
vais marcheur, 

Marcher la loi a la main ans~ bi 1 : the expression to abide by the 
law. 

The neuter verb tomber, to fall, requires indirect objects (87). 

H tombe dn haut-mal, He is subject to fits. 

Followed by the indirect complement oVaccord, it means to agree 
in English. 

Neu tombons d'accord snr ce snjet, We agree on that point. 
Us sont tombes d ? accord pour le prix, They agree on the price. 

Seoir, to be becoming, is used sometimes instead of convenir, in 
Trench. 

II Tons sied mal de lui faire des re- It ill becomes you to reproach kinu 

Here, i7 vous sied mal stands for il ne tous concient pas. 

F arm : falling into female hands, — the distaff then 

being the attribute of the female sex, — tomber en quenouille is now 
the idea of things going to destruction through 
mismanaged ent. 

mbe en qnenonille, That society goes to destruction. 

Ce gonvernement tombe en qnenonille, That government goes to ruin. 

:nber en confosi To be confused, 

Tomber en defaillance, i int, 

Tomber en syncope, To hare a fit, 

Trench exi ^ith their corresponding ones in English. 

er le sinet. used idiomatically, means to interrupt abruptly, 
in English. 



490 GRAMMAR. 

1092. Assurer, in French, answers to to assure, to affirm (869), or 
to insure, when insurances are meant* 

J'assure ce fait, I affirm that fact. 

Vous affirruez cela, You affirm that. 

Nous avons assure notre maison, We have insured our house. 

1093. Argenter, corresponding with to plate or to wasli over with 
silver, is used idiomatically for to sell, to convert into money. 

J'frifait argenter ces chandeliers, / have had those candlesticks icashed 

with silver. 
Ce prodigue a argente sa maison, That spendthrift has sold his house. 

Ces montres sont de cuivre argents, Those watches are copper silvered. 

109-4. Batonner, meaning to cudgel, answers also to cancel, to 
cross out, to erase. 

Les perturbateurs furent vigoureuse- The rioters were vigorously cudgelled by 

merit batonnes par les constables, the constables. 

Toutes les pages de ce journal sont The pages of that day-book are all 

batonnees, crossed. 

Battre la campagne signifies to beat the bushes, to scour the country. 

Used idiomatically, it corresponds with to be delirious, to talk non- 
sense; answering in meaning to the French expression parler de tete, 
to be delirious. 

1095. Blanchir, to whitewash, referring to persons or things, 
means to turn white, to grow old; connected with persons or with 
their actions, it may correspond with to palliate, to excuse. 

lis font blanchir leur maison, They have their house ichitewashed. 

Cet hoinrne blanchit tous les jours, That man grows white or old every day. 

Vous ne blanchirez ni lui ni sa con- You cannot neither excuse him norpal- 
duite, Hate his conduct. 



* In French jarer means to take an oath, or to swear. Preter serment is to 
take an oath before a court of justice. 

Cet homme jure comme un charretier, That man sxcears like a teamster. 
lis ont jure de dire la verite, rien They have sworn to tell the truth, nothing 
que la verite, but the truth. 

The substantive jurement generally answers to blasphemous swearing; ser- 
ment, to judicial oath. 

Juron refers always to impious swearing. 
Ces jurons ou jurements sont impies, This is impious swearing. 

Serment must not be confounded with sarment ; the last is a shoot of the 
grape-vine. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 491 

Remark. — The same verb may express change of color in the com- 
plexion. 

Le teint de cet enfant blanchit, The complexion of that child becomes 

fair. 

Blanchir du linge corresponds with to wash linen. 

Blanchir de crainte is to turn pale with fear, — palir in French. 

Ouvrir, followed by the substantive porte, is used in the meaning 
of to give occasion, to afford an opportunity. In its proper accepta- 
tion this expression has the meaning of to open the door. 

J'ouvre la porte de leur maison, / open the door of their house. 

Sa conduite ouvre la porte a leur His or her conduct gives occasion for 

critique, their criticism. 

Janvier ouvre Fannee, et decembre la January opens the year, and December 

ferme (505 bis), closes it. 

Ouvrir un bal, ouvrir un debat, ouvrir une assemblee, to open or 
begin a ball, a debate, a meeting, are cases where ouvrir has the 
meaning of to begin, to commence. 

To express cessation in action, clore, to close, is generally used 
(222). 

Le bal fut clos a trois heures du matin, The ball closed at three in the morning. 
L'assemblee fut close de bonne-heure, The meeting closed at an early hour. 

1096. Bouchonner, said of horses, means to nib down; said of 
persons, it signifies to fondle, to caress, to pet. Gater, to spoil, may 
be used for either persons or things. 

Bouchonnez ce cheval avant de le faire Before icatering that horse, rub him 

boire, down. 

Cette bonne mere bouchonnetellement That tender mother will spoil her son 

son fils qu'elle le gatera. with too many caresses. 

1097. Balancer, to poise, to swim, to rock, may answer also to to 
waver, to balance, to consider. 

Cette petite fille balance cette escar- That little girl sets that swing in motion, 

polette, tandis que vous, tendre whilst you, tender mother, are rocking 

mere, vous balancez le berceau de your baby. 

votre nourrisson, 

Peut-il balancer entre la vertu et le Can he waver between virtue and vice f 

vice? 

Fondre has the meaning of to burst, to melt, to thaw, to fly at, or 
to pounce upon. 

Cette femme fond en larmes, That woman bursts or melts into tears. 

La neige et la glace fondent au soleil, Snow and ice thaw in the sun. 
La graisse et la cire fondent au feu, Grease and wax melt on the fire. 
En un clin-d'ceil Tennemi fondit sur In an instant the enemy flew or pounced 
nous, on us. 

42* 



492 GRAMMAR. 

Poser, to take off, to leave, may correspond with to sit in English. 
Demain je poserai pour mon portrait, I will sit for my picture to-morrow. 



Laisser le champ libre, 
Lacher la bride a ses passions, 
Rendre la pareille, 
Rendre conipte, 
Rendre responsable, 
Etre rendu de fatigue, 



To give up the field, abandon a thing. 

To let loose our passions. 

To compensate or retaliate. 

To account for, to answer for. 

To make one accountable for something. 

To be worn out with fatigue. 



109S. Contenir, to hold, to contain, may also signify to confine, 
to check, to limit. 

Ce foudre contient du vin rouge (513), That vat is filled with claret wine. 

Cette salle peut contenir mille per- That hall may contain a thousand 

sonnes, people. 

La contenance ferme de la garnison The firm behavior of the garrison awed 

contint les emeutiers, the rioters. 

Les dunes dans leurs limites contien- Sandy hills limit the billows. 

nent les flots, 

1099. Charger, to load, speaking of weights, when the loading 
of arms is meant, has the same meaning in both languages. In 
French charger may mean to intrust, to exaggerate. Referring to 
military movements, it corresponds with to attack. 

Chargerez-vous ce navire de Sucre ? Will you load that vessel with sugar ? 

Chargera-t-on ce canon a boulet, Will they load that cannon with shot ? 

Je vous charge de ce devoir, / intrust you with that duty. 

Le regiment chargea Fennemi avec The regiment attacked the enemy with 
vigueur, vigor. 

Les caracteres de ce drame sont trop The characters of that drama are ex- 
charges, aggerated. 

1100. Communiquer, to transfer or impart a thing, connected with 
persons means to have intercourse, to inform, 

Communiquez-leur cette nouvelle, Impart to them that news. 

Les prisonniers communiquaient se- The prisoners had secret intercourse 

cretement pendant Tobscurite de during the night. 

la nuit, 

1101. Clocher, to have something awry, when lameness is to be 
expressed means to limp. 

Cette dame a toujours dans sa mise That lady has always something awry 
quelque chose qui cloche, about her dress. 

Pauvre fillette, tu as beau faire; tu My dear girl, do what you can, your 
cloches toujours, limping is seen. 

Here fillette, the diminutive of fille, girl, associated with the quali- 
fier pauvre, poor, conveys an endearing idea such as is expressed 
in the English example (412 bis). 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 493 

1102. In familiar conversation, used idiomatically, chanter, to 

sing, may mean to tell, to speak. 

Que nous ohantez-vous la ? What are you telling us? 

Si elle ne veut pas en entendre parler, If she does not want to hear that spoken, 
qu'on le lui chante, let it be sung to her. 

In the first example, chanter conveys an idea of doubt and con- 
tempt for what is said. In the second, it denotes impatience in the 
speaker.* 

1103. Decouvrir, to uncover, to take a cover off, is used also in 
French for to discover, to make discoveries, or to take off the hat. 

Ce petit gourmand decouvre tous les That greedy little child uncovers all 

plats, the dishes. 

Le Capitaine Cook decouvrit les iles Captain Cook discovered the Sandwich 

Sandwich, Islands. 

En presence des dames un homme poli In the presence of ladies a polite man 

se decouvre (1084), takes off his hat. 

1104. Depenser, to spend, is used only for money expenses, — not 
for time, as in English. 

Referring to time, the French use passer, perdre, manger. 

Ce jeune-homme a depense tout son That young man has spent all hi* 
argent, money. 

Therefore we cannot say: 

Nous avons depense notre temps a jouer au lieu d'etudier. 

Remark. — The substantives avoir (50), what one possesses ; fortune, 

fortune; de quoi, our own (667 b>is), may be connected with the verbs 

depenser, manger. 

Nous avons depense tout notre avoir, We have spent all ice possessed, ex- 

toute notre fortune, pour Teduca- hausted our means, for the education 

tion de nos enfants, et les ingrats of our children, and the ingratea 

ne nous en ont tenu aucun compte, have made no returns. 

When waste of time or money is to be expressed, manger, in 
French, takes the place of perdre. 

Ici nous mangeons notre temps et Here we waste our time and money. 
notre argent, 

Decouper signifies to carve, to slice, or to cut something with scis- 
sors. 

* When the murder of Concini Marechal d'Ancre was to be communicated 
to his wife, the remark being made before the queen Mary de Medicis that 
Eleanore would not listen to such a thing, ""Well," said the queen, "sing 
it to her." 



494 GRAMMAR. 

D6coupez ce coq-d'inde (971), Carve that turkey. 

II dScoupe ma silhouette, He cut my profile with scissors. 

Decoupons ce jambon, Let us slice that ham. 

D6pecer corresponds with to disjoint, to cut up the meat, to carve or 
take to pieces. 

Answering to to slice, used idiomatically, trancher means to cut 
short, in English. 

Le boucher depece ce bceuf, The butcher is cutting up that ox. 

DepScez cette volaille, Carve that fowl. 

Tranchons cette dimculte et finis- Let us cut short that difficulty and have 
sons-en, done with it. 

Followed by the preposition a, jouer means to play, to gamble(llb£). 

Nous jouons aux cartes, a la paume, We play cards, we play football. 

Used with reference to musical instruments, jouer is followed by 
the preposition de. 

H joue de la flute, et je joue du violon, He plays on the flute, and I play on the 

violin. 

With reference to other musical instruments, toucher is said of 
pianos or organs ; pincer, of harps or guitars ; sonner, of trumpets or 
bells ; donner, of French horns ; battre, of drums ; blouser, of kettle- 
drums. 

In connection with persons, jouer signifies to play in English. 

Nous jouons avec ces enfants, We play with those children. 

Referring to the explosion of mines, jouer means to spring up. 

Jouer des poings, is to box. Jouer la comgdie, to act like. 

Jouer des jambes, to run away. Jouer de la fourchette, to eat. 

1105. D6rober, with reference to sight, means to hide, to cover 
from. In another acceptation it answers to to rob, to steal from. 

Ce grand chene nous dSrobe la vue de That large oak hides the country from 

la campagne, our sight. 

Les petits voleurs qui ont derobe* nos The little thieves who have stolen our 

fruits seront punis, fruit will be punished. 

Derobez-vous a ma vue, enfants d6na- Unnatural children, hide from my sight. 

turSs, 

1106. Entonner, referring to musical performances, signifies to 
strike up, to begin a tune. It means also to fill up casks with liquids, 
and, when used with reference to persons, to drink excessively. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 495 

Ce chantre entonne parfaitement, That chorister strikes up to perfection. 

A-t-on entonne tout le vin blanc? Has all the white wine been put in casks? 

II entonne comme un Suisse, , He drinks like a Swiss. 

Boire sec, in French, is used idiomatically to express hard drink- 
ing; literally, to drink dry, allusion being made to the complete 
emptying of tumblers, 

Ces buveurs bcivent sec, Those tipplers drink hard. 

HOY. Entendre means to hear or to understand. Therefore, with 
the same meaning in both languages, we may say: 

M'entendez-vous, ou me comprenez- Ho you hear me? or Do you understand 
vous ? me ? 

Dormer a entendre corresponds in English with to hint. 
In French, entendre is used sometimes with the meaning of will 
in English. 

Faites comme vous l'entendrez, peu Do as you will, it matters little to me! 
m'importe! 

At other times, when followed by dire, entendre means to hear from, 
to have news, — equivalent to apprendre, in French. 

Vous serez ravi d'apprendre (ou d'en- You will be pleased to learn that I have 
tendre dire) que je n'ai ete" ni tue been neither killed nor wounded in 

ni blesse dans la derniere bataille, the last battle. 

In other cases it may answer to vouloir, as already remarked 

Nous entendons que cela se fasse sur- We want that done immediately. 
le-ehamp, 

llOS. Chasser, connected with sport or enemies, is to hunt, to turn 
out. With reference to bad characters, it means to throw out-of- 
doors, to expel. 

Demain nous chasserons au li&vre, To-morrow we will hunt the hare. 

I/ennenii a §te" chasse de son camp, The enemy has been turned out of his 

camp. 
Quand chasserez-vous ce vaurien de When will you turn that good-for- 
chez-vous ? nothing out-of-doors ? 

1109. Fouler, speaking of cloth-making, signifies to full; of a 
limb, to sprain; of people, to be trampled upon, to be abused. 

Ce drap est mal foule, That cloth is badly fulled. 

Je me suis foule le poignet, / have sprained my wrist. 

Sous quelque gouvernement que tu te People, under whatever government you 

trouves, pauvre peuple, tu seras may be, you will be trampled upon 

toujours foule" par tes chefs ! by your rulers. 



496 GRAMMAR. 

1UO. Flotter means to wave, to undulate: it has also the significa- 
tion of to fluctuate. 

Cette nacelle flotte sur l'eau, That skiff undulates on the water, 

Ce drapeau flotte dans l'air, That/Jag waves in the air. 

Pauvre humanite, telle est votre Poor mankind, such is your destiny, to 

destinee, flotter entre la crainte fluctuate between hope and fear. 

et l'esperance! 

1111. Filer signifies to spin. "When the sailing of vessels is meant, 
it corresponds with to run or sail. Relating to persons, it means to 
leave unexpectedly: when speaking of stars, to shoot. 

On file la soie. la laine, le coton et le Sill', wool, cotton, and flax are spun to 
lin pour en faire des vetements, make garments. 

Notre fivgate filait dix noeuds quand Our frigate was running ten knots when 
elle toucha, she grounded. 

Cette etoile file, That star is shooting. 

Associated with the substantive coton, flier is used idiomatically 
to express a bad situation or state of persons or things : answering, 
in French, to ttre dans de ?nauvais drops (1020). 

Ce malads file un bien mauvais coton, That sick man is very low indeed. 
Cette banque a file* un mauvais coton, That bank is broken. 

1112. Graisser is to grease. Graisser la patte is to bribe. 
Graisser la patte d'un douanier, To bribe a custom-house )nan. 

"When payments are concerned, payer is used in French, but not, 
as in English, when the accomplishment of a duty is meant. In 
such cases faire or recevoir is used: faire, when the subject is an 
active agent : recevoir, when it ia passive, 

J'ai resolu de vous faire une visite, I have jnade up my mind to pay you a 

visit. 
Nous avons recu la visite de votre pere, Your father paid us a visit. 

Demander des nouvelles is to inquire after persons or things. 

"Nous avons deniande* de vos nouvelles, We inquired after you. 
Avez-vous demande des nouvelles de Did you inquire about war news? 
la guerre? 

In French, reconnoitre is susceptible of two meanings, to achww- 
ledge, and to know or recogn- 

Je reconnais ces hommes, mais celui- I recognize those men, but that one I 
la je le reconnais pour nion bien- acknowledge as my benefactor. 

faiteur, 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 497 

Glacer is used for either persons or things. In the first case, when 
the inclemency of weather is to be expressed, glacer signifies to 
freeze. In the second, where sentimental feelings are concerned, it 
corresponds with to strike or overpower. 

Je glace de la creme, I congeal or am freezing cream. 

Les pieds de cet enfant sont glace"?, The feet of that child are frozen. 

A cette vue nous fumes glaces d'hor- At that sight we were struck with horror. 
reur, 

Glacer may also have the meaning of to glaze, to have a polish. 

Ce papier a lettre est glac£, That letter-paper is glazed. 

Glacerez-vous ces ohjets ? Will you glaze those things ? 

1113* When profit or advantage is to be obtained, gagner means 
to gain When distances are to be expressed, it corresponds with to 
reach, and sometimes with to catch (870 bis). 

Nous avons gagne beaucoup d'argent, We have gained much money. 

Vous avez gagne la vietoire. You gained or obtained the victory. 

Le navire a gagne le large, The ship reached the main sea. 

Les uns ont gagne les champs, les Some got in the fields, others crossed over 

autres l'autre cote de l'eau. the river. 

Elle a gagne un bon rhume en pati- She caught a heavy cold in skating. 

nant, 

1113 bis. Passer, to -pass, to cross, to be, to spend, of frequent use 
in the French language, relating to persons or things, may corre- 
spond with to fade, to take rank. Passer pour corresponds in meaning 
with the expressions to go under the name, to be taken for others than 
we are. 

Passer la riviere, passer la iner. To cross the river, to cross the sea. 

Passer le premier, ou passer le dernier, To rank first or last. 

Nous passames d'abord chez-vous, We went first to your house, afterwards 

puis ehez votre pere, to your father s. 

Yous rassez votre temps a etudier, You spend your time in study. 

Cette dame passe, That lady is passing. 

Cet objet est passe de mode, That thing is out of fashion. 

It will be observed that the expression cette dame passe may have 
two significations ; — viz. : that lady is passing, or, that lady is fading. 

Parler franc ais comme une vache espagnole is an idiomatic phrase 
meaning to speak very bad French. 

Croiser means to cross, to go across, or to cruise. 

Nous croisames le boulevard a la rue At Richelieu Street ice crossed the 

Richelieu, Boulevard. 

lis croisent dans la mer Adriatique, They cruise in the Adriatic. 

Croiser les mains, croiser les bras, croiser les pieds, answer to to 
cross hands, arms, feet. 



498 GRAMMAR. 

Se croiser means to take the sign of the cross and enlist on a 
crusade. 

Se signer signifies to sign or cross one's self. Signer, to sign one's 
name. 

Faire le signe de la croix is to cross one's self. Faire signe des yeux, 
de la main, is to wink, etc. 

1114. With reference to horses, harnacher means to harness; con- 
nected with persons, to put on, to arm or rig one's self. Enharnacher 
may also be used with the same signification. 

Le palefrenier n'a pas harnache les The hostler has not harnessed the 

chevaux ' horses. 

Ces cavaliers vent se harnacher, Those horsemen are going to arm them- 

selves. 
Ces troupes ont blanche sous le har- Those troops have grown old in the 

nais, ou le harnois, service. 

Referring to armaments, the meaning of iouiper is more extensive 
in both languages. 

Cette armee et cette notte sont bien That army and fleet are well supplied, 
equipees, 

Equipement militaire refers to every thing needed for the soldier's 
armament ; accoutrement, to the simple dress ; accoutrement militaire, 
soldier's garb ; accoutrement bourgeois, civilian's garb. Mise bour- 
geoise, mise militaire, answer to the same. 

1115. Heurter, with reference to things, signifies to knock against, 
to rap. Referring to moral feelings, on the contrary, it corresponds 
with to wound, to shock, to hurt. 

Nous nous sommes heurte la tete con- We knocked oar heads against the 

tre la muraille, sans nous faire wall, without hurting ourselves in 

le moindre mal, the least. 

Heurtez a cette porte, et Ton vous Knock at that door, and they will let 

ouvrira, you in. 

With this meaning, heurter, to knock, may express the giving of 
physical pain, as does its English homonym hurt, but, unlike that 
verb, cannot express the existence of such pain in the subject of the 
proposition. 

Therefore, as already remarked, when connected with sentimental 
feelings, heurter expressing pain means to wound, to offend, etc. 

Vous avez heurte leur amour-propre, You wounded their pride. 

Us ont heurte vo= sentiments religieux, They shocked your religious feelings, 

Ces coutumes heurtent la morale, Such customs offend moral*. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 499 

Heurter. to hurt, here expressing damage, injury, as in English, 
corresponds with blesser, to wound. With the same meaning in 
French we might say: 

Vous avez blesse lenr amour-propre, f You icounded their pride, 

r, . , . .. .. . answer- they wounded your religi- 

Bs ont blesse vos sentiments religieux, ing tQ <{ J /eeUng8f t Le customs 

Ces coiitumes blessent la morale, [ wound morals. 

Frapper signifies to strike, to astound, to knock or shock. 
Frapper de glace, speaking of wines, is to bring them to the 
freezing-point. 

Nous eumes du ohampagno frappe de We drank iced champagne. 
glace, 

Answering to to finish, to terminate, achiever, finir, may refer also 
to the good execution or finish of a work. 

Les portraits de ce peintre sont bien The works of that painter are perfectly 
finis. Cet autre acheve moins done. The other gives less finish to 

bien ses toiles, his paintings. 

Here, portraits answers to works, toiles to paintings. 
Toile may mean canvas, painting, or cobweb. 

Une fois encadrees, ces toiles feront Once framed, those paintings will have 

un bon effet, a good ejfecU 

•Achetez de la toile commune pour Purchase common canvas to make 

essuie-mains (552), towels. 

I.'araignee file sa toile sur le plafond, The spider spins its web on the ceiling. 

1116. Referring to things, ignorer signifies to be ignorant of, to be 
unacquainted with. When persons are concerned, it corresponds with 
to despise, to contemn. 

Ce pretendu savant ignore la gram- That so-called scholar is ignorant of 

maire. grammar. 

Au lieu de repondre a cet homme, Instead of answering that man, despise 

ignorez-le; c'est un sot, un fat, him; he is a fool, a vain fellow, in 

un due en un mot (1185), a word, he is an ignoramus. 

1117, Interdire may refer to persons or things, meaning to pro- 
hibit, to declare incapable, or to confuse. 

On lui a interdit l'usage du vin, He has been prohibited the use of wine. 

Ce jeune homme est interdit pour That young man's misconduct has made 

cause d'inconduite. him legally incapable. 

L'eveque a interdit cet eeclesiastique, The bishop has suspended that clergy- 
man. 

Ce pauvre garcon est interdit de voir That poor boy is confused at seeing so 

tant de monde, matiy people. 



50Cf 



GRAMMAR. 



1118. Loner, meaning to let, to hire, when things are concerned, 
may also connected with persons or things signify to praise, to com' 
mend. 



Savez-vous qui a loue cette maison? 

J'ai loue cet ouvrier au mois, 

On vous a loue pour votre noble con- 

duite, 
Cet ouvrage est beaucoup loue pour 

son merite, 



Do you know who has let that house ? 
I havehired that mechanic by the month. 
You have been praised for your noble 

behavior. 
That icork is much commended for its 

merits. 



1119* Lever, to raise, as shown in the following examples, has 
many acceptations in French. 



Lever 



un fardeau, 

un obstacle, des difficulty, 

boutique, maison, maison de 

commerce, 
une armee, une compagnie, 

un lievre, une perdrix, 

un siege, une assemblee (431), 

un camp, 

Tetendard de la liberte, de 

la revolte, 
une imposition ou impot, 
une Smeute, 
le masque, le voile, 
le rideau, 
la tete, le bras, 



To\ 



raise a burden. 

raise obstacles, raise difficulties. 

open shop, keep house, go into 
business. 

raise an army, raise a com- 
pany. 

start a hare, a partridge. 

raise a siege, close an assembly 
or meeting. 

raise a camp. 

raise the flag of freedom, stir 
up rebellion. 

levy taxes. 

raise a riot. 

raise the mask, unveil. 

raise the curtain. 

raise the head, raise the arm. 



Speaking of seeds, lever corresponds with to sprout out from the 
ground. 



Les graines que j'ai semees levent, 



The seeds I put in the ground are 
sprouting. 



1120. Speaking of persons, monter means to go up, to ascend, or to 
bring up, when the carrying of things is meant. Used transitively 
(78) with reference to machinery, it signifies to ivind up. 

Montez par .le grand escalier, Ascend or go up by the large staircase. 

Montez-moi la marchandise au grenier, Bring up the goods in the loft. 
Avez-vous monte la pendule? Have you wound up the clock? 

Remark. — Referring to machinery, the compound dimonter changes 
its acceptation, having the meaning of to take to pieces. 

A-t-on demonte le tourne-broche pour Have they taken the turnspit to pieces 
le nettoyer? to clean it? 

Therefore, to express descent from a place we must use descendre 
and not dtmonter, unless unhorsing be meant. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 



501 



Nous descendons Pescalier, 

Ces cavaliers desceudent de cheval, 

Ce cheval a demonte son cavalier, 



We descend the steps. 

Those horsemen alight from their horses. 

That horse has thrown his rider. 



Desarconner corresponds with to unhorse; jucher, with to elevate, 
to stand on. 



1121. In French, monter forms many idiomatic expressions, illus- 
trated in the following examples. 



a cheval, en voiture, 
en chaire, a l'autel, 

a la tribune, les planches, 

un vaisseau, un navire, 
un lit, une armoire, 
Monter ^ la tete a quelqu'un, 

une maison, un hotel, 

un violon, un piano, 

une affaire, un complot, 

une piece de canon, 

la garde, 

une garde-robe, 

une gamme, etc., 



get on horseback, in a carriage, 
ascend into the pulpit, on the 

altar, 
ascend the rostrum, perform on 

a stage, 
command a man-of-war, a ship, 
put up a bed, a clothes-press. 
To ■{ excite the feelings of somebody, 
furnish a house, an hotel, 
tune a violin, a piano, 
get up an affair, brew a plot, 
mount a gun. 
keep watch, 
purchase clothing, 
ascend a musical scale. 



Monter, in French, is also used idiomatically with reference to 
blushing or reddening. 

Entendant ces paroles peu convenables, Hearing those unbecoming words, the 
le rouge monta au visage de cette young girl blushed. 

jeune personne, 

Jeune personne is used frequently instead of demoiselle, young 
lady. Madame cannot be so used, as in English (1184). 

The neuter verb courir, to run, is used transitively with the mean- 
ing of it is rumored (84). 



Le bruit courait qu'il etait mort, 



It icas rumored that he was dead. 



With the meaning of risquer, to hazard, it is used transitively 
(90, 91). 



J'en courrai le risque, ou la chance, 
Nous courrons ce danger, 



/ will run that chance. 
We will risk that danger. 



Courir la chance, to run the chance, courir le danger, to run the 
risk, are cases where courir, having direct complements, is used tran- 
sitively (91). 

Courir sur la glace, to run on the ice, courir apres la fortune, to 



502 GRAMMAR. 

run after fortune, are cases where courir is used intransitively; — viz.: 
followed by indirect objects. 

Parcourir, to wander, to look over, being transitive, may have direct 
complements. 

Parcourir le pays, To go about the country. 

Parcourir un livre, To look over a book. 

1122* When locomotion in water is meant, nager means to swim; 
to abound, when plenty is to be expressed. Connected with the 
substantive blood, it corresponds with to welter. 

Ce bambin nage comme un poisson, That little boy swims like a fish. 

Nous nageons dans l'abondance, We abound with every thing. 

Sous Neron Rome nageait dans le sang, Under Nero Rome weltered in blood. 

1123* With reference to persons or things, nommer is to call them 
by their names. Connected with public functions, it corresponds with 
to appoint. 

Votre frere a ete nomme general, et Your brother has been appointed a g ene- 
le mien a ete nomme colonel du ral, and mine a colonel of engineers, 

genie, 

1124* Obliger, in French, corresponds with to oblige, to help, to 
compel, to force, in English. 

Je peux vous obliger en cela, I may oblige or help you in that. 

Je peux vous obliger a cela, / may force or compel you to do that. 

Nous vous obligerons dans Poccasion, We will help you upon occasion. 

1125. Observer means to behold, to view, to respect. Used in the 
meaning of to observe, in English, observer must be preceded by the 
verb f aire (910), in French. 

Pouvez-vous observer cet objet dans Can you see that object far off? 

le lointain? 

Je vous ai fait observer que vous aviez I made you the remark that you were 

tort, wrong. 

Observez la loi, Respect the law. 

Therefore, never say in French, je vous observe, je vous remarque, 
speaking of an observation or remark to be made. 

1126. Referring to the fabrication of stuffs, ourdir means to weave. 
When machinations are intended, it corresponds with to contrive, to 
brew, to plot. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 503 

Cette etoffe est bien ourdie, That stuff is well woven. 

On ourdit un complot contre Petat, A plot against government is brewing. 

Ourdir une conspiration, To brew a conspiracy. 

1127. Pousser is said of persons and things, signifying to push, 
to remove. Said of plants, it means to grow, to shoot. 

Poussez un peu cette table (1084), Remove a little that table. 

Sice garcon ne vous fait pas place, Should that boy not make room for you, 

poussez-le en-arriere, push him back. 

Mes plantes poussent rapidement, My plants are growing rapidly. 

Preter, to lend, followed by the substantive hand, is used idiomati- 
cally for to be instrumental in something, to take part with. 

En cela je ne peux vous preter la main, In this I cannot take part icith you, 

Tenir la main is used also with the same meaning. 
Signifying to throw, jeter is employed in French with reference to 
the construction of bridges (108). 

On doit jeter un pont sur cette riviere, A bridge is to be built across that river. 
Jettera-t-on un pont sur la manche ? Will a bridge be built across the Eng- 

lish Channel? 

Combined with etre, the past participle arrive*, conjugated uniper- 
sonally, means to happen, in English. 

II est arrive un grand malheur (787), A great disaster has happened. 

1128. Pecher signifies to fish, to sin, or to catch fish, to commit 
sins. Pecher, to sin, requires the acute accent. 

Nous avons peche beaucoup de poisson, We caught many fishes. 

Vous avez beaucoup peche, mon enfant, You have sinned greatly, my child. 

Nous p£cherons dans la mer, We will fish in the sea. 

Pecher a la ligne, pecher au filet, correspond with to angle, to 
catch fish with nets. 

Pecher en eau trouble is to profit by people's misfortunes. 

Songer, to dream, is also used in French, with the meaning of to 
think, to remember. 

Cette nuit j'ai songe ou reve a mon I dreamed of my friend last night. 

ami, 
Avez-vous songe a mon affaire? Did you think of my affair? 

Tremper, to soak, to macerate, is used figuratively for to drench. 

Je suis trempe* par la pluie, I am drenched by the rain. 

43* 



504 GRAMMAR. 

Eire trempS comme une soupe is a familiar expression, meaning to 
be drenched, either by sweat or water. 

1129. Petrifier, to petrify, or convert into stone, is used for both 
persons and things. 

Cet evenement nous a tous petrifies, That circumstance has petrified us all. 

Ce bois est pe trine, That wood is petrified. 

A cette vue je fus petrifie d'horreur, At that sight I was petrified with horror. 

Frappe d'6tonnenient answers to struck with astonishment. 

1130. When material things are concerned, partager signifies to 
divide. It corresponds with to be, in English, when those things are 
immaterial or indivisible. In both acceptations it is active or tran- 
sitive (78). 

Nous avons partage cette propriete, We have divided that estate. 

lis ont partage notre avis, They have been of the same opinion 

with us. 
Vous ne partagez pas notre opinion, You are not of the same opinion with us. 

1131. Sabler means to sand, or cover with sand. Eeferring to large 
potations, it means to drink off, to toss off. 

Les allees de ce parterre sont biens The walks of that flower-garden are 

sablees et ratissees, well sanded and scraped. 

Croiriez-vous qu'a eux deux ces Would you believe that between them 

buveurs ont sable dix bouteilles those two tipplers drank ten bottles 

de vin ! of wine ? 

1132. With reference to animate beings, saigner signifies to draw 
blood, to slaughter. Speaking of rivers or marshes, it means to 
drain. 

Saignons ce malade, Let us bleed that sick man. 

Le boucher va saigner cet agneau, The butcher is going to slaughter that 

lamb. 
Pour arroser ces prairies on va saigner To water those meadows that stream 
cette riviere, will be drained. 

Used figuratively, saigner may correspond with to abuse, to take 
advantage (926). 

Connaissant mon besoin d* argent, ces Knowing my want of money, those Jews 
juifs m'ont saigne, took advantage of me. 

1132 bis. Ruminer, said of animals, answers to to chew the cud. 
Used figuratively, it corresponds with to reflect, to think, or to pro- 
pound. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 505 

Le boeuf et le mouton ruminent, TJie ox and sheep cheic the cud. 

J'ai longtemps rumine sur ce projet, / have thought on that project a long 

time. 
Cet enfant rumine sa lejon, Thett child thinks of his lesson. 

Speaking of the mastication of tobacco, the French use chiquer, to 
chew. 

Je passe a un matelot de chiquer, I can excuse a sailor for cheicing, hut 
mais pour un homme de bon-ton for a gentleman it is a detestable 

c'est une habitude abominable, practice. 

Chiquer, in vulgar style, may take the place of manger, with the 
meaning of to gulp doicn, to eat. 

Ces geux-la ne sont bons qu'a chiquer Those villains are only good for eating. 
les vivres, 

1133. With reference to objects of toilet, seoir means to befit, to 
become (213). 

Ce chapeau vous sied moins bien que This hat becomes you much less than the 
Fautre, other. 

Referring to acts, it may correspond with it is proper. 

H vous sied de lui parler ainsi, It is proper for you to speak so to him. 

In its proper acceptation, saler means to salt, to cure iciih salt. 
Idiomatically, it answers to surfaire, to pay exaggerated prices, to be 
overcharged. 

On sale la viande et le poisson pour Meat and fish are salted to keep. 

les conserver, 

Maintenant que you3 m'en dites le Now that you tell me the price of that 

prix, je m'apercois que l'on m'a cloth, I perceive that I have been 

fait saler ce drap, overcharged. 

1134. Tenter signifies to try, to tempt, or to fix aicnings. 

Tentez de devenir meilleur et vous le Try to become better, and you will be- 

deviendrez. come so. 

Rien n'a pu tenter ce jeune homme, Nothing could tempt that young man. 

On tenta toutes les rues ou il devait They spread awnings over the streets 

passer, through which he was to pass. 

"With reference to windows, doors, or houses, donner sur means to 
look on. Xeuter or intransitive in this signification, it requires in- 
direct objects. 

Cette maison donne sur la route, That house looks on the road. 

La croisee donne sur le jardin, The window looks on the garden. 

Cette porte donne sur le derriere, That door looks on the back of the 

hovs*>. 



506 GRAMMAR. 

Followed by the qualifiers stir, certain, this verb may correspond 
with to tell. 

On m'a donni cela pour certain, They told me that as certain. 

Donner dans expresses a tendency, answering to tomber, to fall 
into. 

Donner dans le faux, dans le roman, To have a tendency to false ideas, to 

romanticism. 
Cet Scrivain donne souvent dans le That writer falls frequently into errors. 

faux, 
Soyez consequent, et ne donnez pas Be consistent, and do not give way to 

dans le faux, falsehood. 

In the preceding examples, tomber dans might take the place of 
donner dans. 

Donner dans le panneau is to be befooled. 
Donner des lemons, to give lessons. 
Donner des coups, to give blows. 

1135. Speaking of persons, terrasser signifies to throw on the 
ground; referring to things, it means to fill with earth, to embank. 

Ce lutteur terrassa son antagoniste, That wrestler threw his opponent. 
Nous allons terrasser le tour de la We are going to embank the space 
maison pour y planter des arbres, round the house and plant trees. 

1136. Referring to persons, atterrer means to come to the ground. 
Atterrer may also correspond with to deject, to startle, to astound. 

Dans notre chute nous atterrdmes sans In our fall we came down without hurt. 

accidents, 
L'annonce de cette mort nous atterra, The announcement of that death as- 
tounded us. 

113*7. Unir corresponds with to smooth, to polish. Connected with 
persons or things, it means also to unite, to join (936 bis). In those 
two acceptations, it is active or transitive. 

II faudra unir ces surfaces, Those surfaces must be polished. 

Ces deux pieces doivent etre unies, Those two objects must be joined together. 

Ces deux personnes sont unies par These two persons are united by friend- 
PamitiS, ship. 

1137 bis. Used actively, marier, to marry, refers to those perform- 
ing the religious or legal ceremony of marriage, to the parents or 
guardians of the contracting parties. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 507 

L'arcbeveque de Londres a marie le The Archbishop of London married the 

couple royal, royal couple. 

M. Williams niarie sa fille, son pupille, Mr. Williams marries his daughter, 

his ward. 
Le maire les a maries hier soir, The mayor married them yesterday 

evening. 

Conjugated passively, marier refers only to the subjects in propo- 
sitions. 
Dans un an nous serons maries (861), Within a year we will be married. 

Conjugated reflectively, se marier is used only with reference to 
the contracting parties. 

Nous nous sommes maries, We are married. 

Faire un nxariage is to marry or contrive a match. 

Ce jeune homme fait un bon mariage That young man will make a good 

(726), match. 

C'est Me. James qui a fait ce mariage, It is Mrs. James who made that match. 
Faire un mariage n'est pas se marier, Contriving marriages is not getting 

married. 

Epouser in the reflective voice, s'tpoaser, is said only of those 
binding themselves in wedlock. 

J'epouse cette femme, nous epouserons I marry that woman, we will soon marry. 

bientot, 
Ces jeunes-gens s'epouseront-ils? Will those young people marry? 

Epousailles is a word referring simply to the religious ceremony 
of marriage. 

Fiancer is to betroth; fianqailles is the betrothing, the marriage 
contract in which portions are* stipulated by the parties or parents. 

Les fiancailles auront lieu demain, The betrothing will take place to- 

morrow. 
Ces jeunes-gens sont nances, Those young people are betrothed to 

each other. 

Fianc6, masculine, answers to betrothed; fiancee is the feminine 
form of the word. 

Nouveau-marie, corresponds with bridegroom; nouvelle-mariSe, 
with bride. 

Remark. — Conjugated in the active voice, ipouser is used in French 
with the meaning of to take part in. 

Nous n'epousons jamais les querelles We never take part in other peopled 

d'autrui, broils. 

N'e'pousez pas leur parti, car ce sont Do not side with them, for they are 

des mechants, icicked. 



508 GRAMMAR. 

Connected with persons, pardonner, to forgive, requires an indirect 
object, — a direct, when connected with the acts of persons (706). 

Je pardonne a mon fils, I forgive (to) my son. 

Nous pardonnons votre inconduite, We forgive your bad conduct. 

Vous pardonnez sa faute, n'est-ce pas? You will forgive him, will you not? 
(366), 

Desc'endre is sometimes used with the meaning of to stop, in 
English. 

Nous descendrons a l'hotel Meurice a We will stop at the hotel Meurice in 
Paris, Paris. 

Such sentences are elliptical in French. 

When it does not mean to cause, to procure, the verb causer, in 
French, signifies to talk, to chat, in English. 

Ces deux dames causent depuis bien Those two ladies have been chatting 
long-temps, a long time. 



1138. In connection with persons or things, user means to use or 
wear out. 

TJsez de moi et de mes offres, Make use of my offers and of me. 

Vous usez beaucoup d'habits, mon You wear out many clothes, my lad. 

garcon, 
Cet homme est use* de corps et d'esprit, That man is worn out in body and 

mind. 

1139. Vider means to settle or leave a place. Vider les lieux is a 
law-term, signifying to leave or evacuate premises. Vider une bou- 
teille is to empty a bottle. 

Jean, avez-vous vide" ce tonneau? John, have you emptied that cash? 

Nous viderons cette affaire entre nous, Between us we will settle that affair. 

C'est demain que nous vidons les To-morrow ioe leave the premises. 
lieux, 

1140. Connected with theft, voler means to rob, to steal. Kefer- 
ring to the flying of birds, it signifies to fly. 

On nous a vole tout notre argent, All our money has been stolen. 

Les oiseaux volent d'un arbre a F autre, Birds fly from tree to tree. 

In the first acceptation it is active; in the second, neuter or intran- 
sitive. 

As shown in the following examples, tirer, in French, has many 
acceptations. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 509 

Tirer une corde, tirer un canon, tirer To pull a rope, drag a cannon, fire a 

un coup de canon, tirer une char- cannon, pull or draw a cart, draw a 

rette, tirer un plan, tirer un seau plan, draw a bucket of water, draw 

d'eau, tirer un portrait, etc., likenesses, etc. 

The idiom tirer la langue means to wait anxiously for a thing. 

Tirer Vtchelle might be used to express the ne plus ultra of things. 

Boire un canon, among mechanics, is to take a dram. 

Pincer, to pinch, is employed idiomatically for to take in, to touch off. 

The verb parcourir, to go over, to survey, is used figuratively for to 

read, to peruse. 

II parcourut en un instant tout le He perused the xchole book in a moment, 
livre, 

In the above example, the words des yeux, complement of the attri- 
bute parcourant, are understood after the verb (458). 

1141. Changer is to change, to alter, to convert, to modify, to remove. 
Speaking of clothing, or of places or situations, it corresponds with 

to change. 

II change de linge ; ils changent de He changes linen; they remove. 

maison, 

Nous changeames de contenance, We changed our countenance. 

II change de religion pour une autre, He changes his religion for another. 

1142. When banking transactions are to be expressed, as shown 

in the following technical expressions used in the two languages, in 

French, changer corresponds always with to exchange in English. 

Changeur de monnaies, Broker, viz., exchanger of coin. 

Comptoir-de-change, Exchange-office. 

Agent-de-change, Exchange-agent, broker. 

Lettre-de-change, Bill of exchange. 

In the word change, used for exchange, the French base their 
idejas on the operations in vogue before bills of exchange were known, 
when in reality money was carried from place to place. 

1143* As shown above, followed by indeterminate substantives, 
changer has those substantives for indirect complements; viz., they 
connect through prepositions. 

Changer de temps a autre, ( change from time to time. 

Changer sur-le-champ, j, J change immediately. 
Changer pour cause de sante, 1 change on account of health. 

Changer a la minute, [ change in a minute. 

Here, sur-le-champ, a la minute, are adverbial expressions stand- 
ing for a simple adverb, d la minute answering to instantly, sur-le- 
champ to immediately (610). 



510 GRAMMAR. 

Followed by determinate or qualified nouns, it has those nouns 
for direct complements (307, 358). 

Changer les heures du travail, To change the hours of labor. 

Changer son ancien nom pour un To change one's name. 

autre, 
Changer son linge, ses habits, To change linen, change clothing. 

1144. "When mutual transfers of property are meant, ^changer in 
French corresponds -with to exchange in English. 

Voulez-rous echanger de chapeau? Will you exchange hats? 

Echangeriez-vous votre maison pour Would you exchange your house for 

la niienne ? mine f 

Echangeons de valets, Let us exchange grooms. 

• 
Respecting the government of prepositions, the rules given for 
changer apply equally to exchanger. 

Us Schangent entre eux de temps a They exchange from time to time among 

autre (436), themselves. 

Nous echangeons sans besoin, par We change without necessity, out of 

fantaisie, whim. 

1145. Changer and exchanger are used in different acceptations. 

Ces avocats ont echange quelques pa- TJiose lawyers have exchanged some 

roles -aigres, sharp icords. 

Changer de gamme, changer de ton, To change tune, to speak differently. 

Changer de visage, changer de Ian- To change face, to change language. 

1146. Troquer signifies to barter, to sicap. Like those words in 
English, it refers generally to small bargains. 

Troqueriez-vous cette pipe pour celle- Would you swap this pipe for that t 
la? 

1147. Troc-pour-troc, in French, expresses the even exchange of 
things for others, answering to nothing to boot, in English. 

Nous avons fait echange de chevaux We exchanged horses without any thing 
troc-pour-troc, to boot. 

1147 bis. Changer used reflectively, se changer, has always the 
same meaning in English, while in French it adds the idea of 
removal to that of a personal act. 
Nous nous sommes changes de maison, We have changed houses. 

Remark. — Practice or dictionaries will teach the different mean- 
ings of verbs much better than we could with examples. The fore- 
going is enough to show pupils how careful they must be in the 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERRS. 



511 



choice of words. They will perceive that changer and ^changer 
express very different ideas ; and so in other cases. — See Fasquelle's 
Method, p. 165-1-2, for false definitions. 



Verbs essentially Pronominal or Keflective. 

114T ter. Verbs essentially pronominal or reflective cannot be 
conjugated without two pronouns (97). The first pronoun is the 
subject, the second the direct object, of those verbs. 



Je me repends, ^ 
Je m'abstiens, > . 

Je me ressouviens, J 



answer- 
ing to - 



Je repends-moi, J repent °\ myself, under- 
J'abstiens-moi, I forbid > stood in 

Je ressouviens-moi, I remember J English. 



The essentially pronominal verb s'arroger, to attribute to o tie's self, 
forms the only exception to this general rule, the objective pronouns 
me, te, se, nous, vous, se, answering to a moi, a tot, a ltd or elle, d 
nous, a vous, a enx, a elles (74), being indirect objects. 

Je m'arroge, answering to, j'arroge d moi; je me suis arroge, or j'ai arroge 
d moi. 

Verbs occasionally pronominal or reflective (98) may have their 
objective pronoun a direct or an indirect object. Such are: 



Se natter, *) 
S'aimer, > 

Se rejouir, J 



Se donner, 
S'acheter, 
S'imaginer, 



answering to 



answering to 



{flatter-so i, 
aimer-so?', 
rejouir-soi", 

( donner a soi, 
\ acheter a soi, 
( imaginer d soi, 



Pronouns direct objects. 



Pronouns indirect objects. 



The compound tenses of pronominal verbs are conjugated with 
the auxiliary Ure, having the meaning of avoir, answering gram- 
matically to the English construction. 



Je me suis flatte, 
Je me suis rejoui, 
Je me suis aime, 



J'ai flatte moi. Je me suis donnS, / have given to 

myself. 

J'ai rejoui moi. Je me suis achete, I have bought 

for myself. 

Jai aime moi. Jeme suis imagine, / have fancied 

in myself. 



Therefore, according to rule 777 on past participles, whenever the 
objective pronoun of reflective verbs is an indirect complement, the 
past participle in compound tenses must remain invariable. It 
varies should that pronoun be a direct complement (782). 

44 



512 GRAMMAR. 

Nous nous sommes flattes ou flatties, Nous nous sommes donne la' 

peine, fiQ 

Vous vous £tes aimes ou aimees, Tousvous etes achete des robes, [ SwJ 

He se sont rejouis, ou elles se sont r£- lis se sont imagine qu'on les 
jouies, trompait, 

To know mechanically the nature of objective pronouns occurring 
with reflective verbs, we have but to add a complement to those 
verbs. Should that complement be direct, the objective pronoun 
must be an indirect object. If indirect, the objective pronoun must 
be a direct complement. 

In the preceding examplos, la peine, des robes, qu'on les trompait, 
are direct complements ; the pronouns nous, vous, se, are indirect. 
In the other examples, where the same pronouns are direct objects, we 
may add indirect complements to those sentences, and say : 



Nous nous sommes flattes ou flattees d'un vain espoir, 

Vous vous etes aimes ou aimees sans raison, 

III se sont rejouis ou elles se sont rejouies de cette nouveUc, 



> 



Emporter, to carry, is an active or transitive verb (77) ; preceded 
by the pronoun V, it occasionally becomes reflective (96). Used as a 
pleonasm (856), in such cases V represents pronouns of the same 
person as the subjects (93), and is a direct complement. 

Je l'emporte sur lui, ") f J'emporte not sur lui. 

Tu l'emportes sur nous, > answering to < Tu Feniportes toi sur nous. 

II l'emporte sur eux, J (il l'emporte lui sur eux. 

Therefore, derived from an active verb (75), and preceded by the 
direct complements moi, toi, lui, etc., l'eniporter sur, to surpass, can- 
not be a neuter verb, as erroneously indicated by Spiers in the pre- 
face of his dictionary, headed Grammatical part. 

1148. S'en aller, answering literally in French to alter soi de Id 
{en representing the adverbial expression de Id), corresponds with 
to go away, to leave a place. 

Je m'en vais de France en Amerique, I go from France to America. 

Inseparable from the objective pronouns me, te, se, nous, vous, se, 
en retains its place throughout the conjugation when affirmative 
in form. 

Should verbs be conjugated interrogatively, they form an excep- 
tion to this rule. 
M'en suis-je-alle ? Did I go away? 

Remark. — In such interrogative cases, en is always intimately 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 513 

connected with the objective pronoun. It is the pronoun subject 
which changes place. 

"With imperatives used affirmatively, en and the objective pronoun 
are placed after verbs. 

Va-t'en (445), Go (thou). 

Allez-vous-en, Go aicay (you). 

Allons-nous-en, Let us go away. 

Remark. — When imperatives are conjugated negatively, en and 
the objective pronoun take their place before verbs (623). 

Ne nous en allons pas, Let us not go away. 

Ne t'en vas pas, Bo not go aioay (thou). 

Ne vous en allez pas, Bo not go away (you). 

In compound tenses they stand between the nominative aDd the 
auxiliary. 

Nous nous en sommes alles, We went aicay. 

lis s'en seraient alles, They would have gone away. 

1149. Essentially reflective, se repentir, s'abstenir, s y emparer, have 
always their objective pronoun for direct complement: consequently, 
with those verbs we cannot say : je repends, j y abstiens, fempare, 
as we would with fobiiens, je flatte (97, 98) : therefore, reflectively 
with indirect objects, in French, or intransitively in English, we 
should say : 

Je m'empare de cette place, / take possession of that seat. 

Nous nous abstenons de mentir, We abstain from lying. 

Vous vous repentez de yos fautes, You repent of jour faults. 

The verb repent in English may be used either transitively or 
intransitively: it is allowable to say, You repent your faults ; but 
the use of the preposition has the weight of authority. 

According to what we have said, though essentially pronominal, 
s'arroger may have direct complements, its objective pronouns being 
indirect objects, answering to a moi, d toi, a lid, a elle, etc. (74). 

Les droits gu'elles se sont arrogees, The rights they assumed they appro- 
elles se les sont accordes, priated to themselves. 

Here, que, les, are direct complements, representing droits (777), 
rights. 

In the above sentence there are two propositions, one principal, the 



514 GRAMMAR. 

other incidental, placed first by inv The grammatical 

traction runs thus: 

i€ d elles les droits qn'elles ont arroge <J elles-memes. 

In this sentence the auxiliary to have stands for to be, and the per- 
sonal pronoun indirect object a elles takes the place of se used in 
the figurative construct: 

The auxiliary to be. not admitting of complements, cannot be con- 
jugated reflectively (466). 

As we have already remarked, to have is the real auxiliary con- 
^ith the reflective voice, always reproduced in parsing or 
grammatical constructions. 

'■.tier, figuratively, se bercer in the reflective voice, may stand 
for to flatter one's 6 

Nous nous flan 5 sir, jUnUer ourselves that we will suc- 

ceed. 
~ous bereez d'un fol espoir. You flatter yourselves with a vain hope. 

Referring to horses, s'emp&rter means to run away. Said of per- 

: :>rresponds with to fly i ' :n. • 

The following illus - will show that nearly every adjective 

verb, in French, is capable of being used reflective] 

1150. Encourir, : to draw down on one's self, has the 
same meaning when c ly. 

"nomme a eneounx la peine de That man has incurred the pain of 
mort, ou, eet homm 7 uru death. 

la peine de m 

:ourir used in the sense of running away would be incorrect. 
B proper verb. 

1151. Fuir means to run, to fly, s'enfuir to run or fly away or from. 
1 actively, fuir, having a figurative meaning, may be replaced 

Nous fuyons ou mam Is dan- We fly from or voe avoid danger. 

nfnirent a notre approehe, They run away at our approach. 

lis fuient devant l'ennemi (196), They fly before the enemy. 

1152. When using r ted with en, we must 
remember tin - n to be made between en pronoun, answering 

fhim, of her, ofth and en adverbial expression, de la; 

aw ay represent persons or things, the 

last alwa; places left (377, 397). 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 515 

In the following examples en is used with very different meanings 
in French. 

S'en dormer, ") Here en represents S'en aller, 

S'en passer, de cela, of it, S'en fuir, I Here en answers to 

S'en voir priver, j of him, her, S'en retourner, ] de Id, away, from. 

S'en souhaiter. J them. an revenir, J 

Speaking of pleasures, we may say: 

Nous nous en donnons, nous nous en passons, nous nous en voyons prives, 
nous nous en souhaitons, answering to : nous nous donnons de cela, nous 
nous passons de cela, etc. 

Speaking of places which we have left or are about to leave : 

Nous nous en allons, nous nous en fuvons. nous nous en retournons, nous 
nous en revenons, answering to : nous allons de Id, nous fuyons de Id, etc. 

Sedunner, se proposer, may have two different meanings in French. 

Se donner may signify to represent one's self, or, to give to our- 
selves. 

In the first case se is a direct complement,, answering to soi ; in 
the second it is an indirect complement, answering to a soi. There- 
fore, according to rule 777, we will write : 

Elles se Sftnt donnees pour des per- They represented themselves as learned 
sonnes instruites et bien elevees. and \cell brought up. 

Elles se sont donne beaucoup de peine They took much trouble/or nothing. 
pour rien, 

In the first of these examples, preceded by the direct object se, 
the past participle donne' agrees in gender and number with that 
complement, representing the subject elles. In the second that par- 
ticiple remains invariable, because it is followed by its direct com- 
plement beaucoup de peine : the personal pronoun se, preceding, being 
an indirect object, answering to a soi, to themselves. 

In answers, preceded by pronouns indirect objects of persons, en 
represents a clause of a sentence not expressed in those answers (486). 
En, y, we have already said, refer always to something previously 
named (385, 938). 

Query: — Ferez-vous cela? Ansicer : Query. — Will you do that f Answer: 
Nous ne nous en donnerons pas We shall not take the trouble to 

menie la peine, do it. 

I 

S This sentence is elliptical in French, de le faire, or de faire cela, 

being understood. En, answering to de cela expressed in the interroga- 
tion, dispenses with the repetition of those words. 

1153* Dormir, neuter or intransitive verb, means to sleep. AVith 
en for prefix, meaning then to put asleep, it becomes transitive 



516 GRAMMAR. 

and may have direct objects. Conjugated reflectively, it signifies to 

fall asleep. 

J'ai dormi trois heures de suite, I slept three consecutive hours. 

Bonne, endormez cet enfant, Nurse, put that child asleep, 

Je m'endors sur ma chaise, I get asleep on my chair. 

Followed by the substantive rdti, s'endormir is used idiomatically 

for to procrastinate. 

Ne nous endormons pas sur le r6ti, Beware of procrastination. 

1154. Conjugated reflectively with reference to time and weather, 
faire, active verb, corresponds with to make for one's self to get, to 
grow, to become. 

II se fait un nom, une reputation, He makes for himself a name, a reputa- 

tion. 
II se fait tard, It is growing late. 

Le temps se fait froid, The weather groios cold. 

The same expressions are used frequently with reference to per- 
sons. 

Cette femme se fait vieille, That woman grows old. 

Ces enfants se font mechants, Those children become bad. 

Cet homme se fait insupportable, That man renders himself insupportable. 

Speaking of persons, faire may correspond with the expressions 
to conform, to become familiarized, to become accustomed, etc. 

Nous faisons a leurs gouts, We conform to their tastes. 

Elle se fait a ces choses la, She becomes familiar with those things. 

Used with interrogations, se faire corresponds with to be. 

Comment se fait-il que vous etes la ? How is it that you are there t 

Se jouer signifies to baffle, to deceive, to scoff (769, 1104). 

I/impie se joue des Dieux et des The impious man scoffs at the Deity and 
hommes, deceives men. 

Arpenter, to survey, is used in the meaning of to straddle, to stalk. 
It cannot be conjugated reflectively. 

De temps a autre il arpentait sa Now and then he stalked about the 

chambre, room. 

Le g^om^tre a arpente notre ferme, The surveyor has surveyed our farm. 





r mal, 




' hurt one's self, 


1155. 


violence, 




overcome one's feelings , ^ 


prier, 




require soliciting, 


Se faire - 


entendre, 


To ■ 


make one's self heard or under- 
stood (1107), 




aimer, estimer, 




be loved by others, etc., 




avocat, medecin 




> become a lawyer, a physician , 



are a few of the numerous offices of faire used reflectively. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 



517 



1156. Used reflectively, uiettre, se mettre, has also many significa- 
tions in French. 



Se mettre - 



au lit, dans un bain, a l'eau, 

en route, en garde, 

a Paffut, a portee, 

a table, I diner, 

a discretion de quelqu'un, 

en marche, en campagne, 

en nage, en course, 
en danse, a dos, 

a la chemise, a l'kdpital, 

dans l'einbarras, en peine, 
a Theure, a l'oeuvre, 
en colere, de bonne -humeur, 
a la gene, en penitence, 
en mesure, au regime, 
en train, 



To 



get into bed, into a bath, in the 
water. 

start on a journey, stand on the 
defensive. 

watch, be within reach. 

sit at table, sit down to dinner. 

be in the power of somebody. 

move about, commence some- 
thing. 

be in a sweat, go an errand. 

begin something, incur the hatred 
of others. 

be reduced to want, to public 
charity. 

be in trouble. 

take time, begin a job. 

be angry, be merry. 

be in want, be punished. 

be prepared, be on diet. 

do a thing. 



Remark. — The foregoing cases compose indirect complements of 
se mettre, where the personal pronoun se is jthe direct object. 

In the case of neuter verbs, like nuire, parler, courir, where the 
personal pronouns are indirect objects, vre may place direct objects 
after the verbs ; but such words belong properly, to the subjects. 

lis se nuisent les uns aux autres, They injure each other. 

Elles se parlent Tune a l'autre, They talk among themselves. 

Nous nous courrons Tun apres l'autre, We run one after the other. 

Signifying to mix, m^ler reflectively, se meter, means to meddle 
(909) with. 

II se mele de tout faire, et ne sait rien, He meddles with every thing, and knows 

nothing. 

Hire signifies to laugh ; se rire implies derision, scorn. 



Nous rions d'eux, 
Nous nous rions d'eux, 



We laugh at them. 
We deride them. 



Epouffer de rire is to burst with laughter. 

More familiar, crever de rire has the same meaning. 

1157. Preceding verbs in the infinitive, se mettre indicates the 
commencement of an action. 

Us semirent tous a chanter et a boire, They all began to sing and to drink. 

Nous nous mettons a travailler, We are setting to work. 

Vous vous mettez a table, You are placing yourself at the table* 



518 GRAMMAR. 

Referring to weather, se mettre signifies to become, to change, to 
turn. 

Le temps se met au chaud, au froid, The weather becomes warm, cold, rainy, 
a la pluie, au vent, a la neige, windy, snowy. 

Connected with fashion, it means to follow, to be in the fashion. 

Les Americaines se mettent a la fran- American ladies dress in the French 
caise, fashion. 

,This sentence is elliptical in French, mode, fashion, being under- 
stood. 

When the action expressed by se mettre has reference to persons, 
se mettre en colere, to get angry, requires the preposition contre ; de, 
when the action has reference to things. Should those things, how- 
ever, be beyond human control, contre must be used. 

II est en colere contre nous, He is angry with us or at us. 

II est en colere de ce qu'on Fait mal He is angry because he was not welcome. 

recu, 

lis sont en colere contre le temps, They are angry at the weather. 

Tempgter, to grumble, is also said of persons. 
Cet homme ne fait que tempeter, That man does nothing but grumble. 

1158. Se facher, to be dissatisfied, to be displeased, takes the pre- 
position contre for persons, and de, answering to with, for things. 

II se fache contre nous, He is displeased with us. 

Nous nous sommes facnes de vos ma- We are dissatisfied ivith your bad man- 

nieres inconvenantes, ners. 

Vous vousfachez contre tout le monde, You are displeased with everybody. 

Cottre, in French, always implies passion, answering to anger, 
madness, in English. On the contrary, se facher admits of reason or 
plausible causes, as shown in the following examples. 

Votre pere s'est faclie* contre vous, et Your father is displeased with you, and 

avec raison, with good cause. 

Nous sommes grandement faches de We are highly dissatisfied with his de- 
son depart, parture. 

To justify ourselves in dissenting from former Methods on this 
point, we may remark that people can have cause for complaint 
without feeling in the least angry. See Fasquelle's Method, p. 122-6 

Occasionally reflective, se dechainer, to light up, to get loose, occurs 
mostly in fine writing. It must not be confounded with desenchal- 
ner, to set free, to break bounds or chains. The preposition contre 
or sur connects se de'chainer with its indirect complement. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 519 

La colere divine s'est dechainee sur Divine wrath has alighted upon him, 

ou contre lui, 
Les vents sont dechain^s dans 1'air The winds are loose on high. 

(413), 
La tempete se dechaine sur le frele The tempest bursts on the frail ship, 

navire, 

Donner in its proper acceptation is to give. Idiomatically it sig, 
nifies to procure to ourselves, to assume or to assure. Occasionally 
it becomes reflective (1152, 98). 

Nous nous donnons beaucoup de peine, We have much trouble. 

II se donne un air important, He assumes an important look. 

Cela nous a ete donne" pour certain, We are assured of it. 

Donner a boire, donner a manger, To give to drink, to eat, to hire beds for 

donner a coucher, donner des the night, to give lessons, perform- 

representations, donner des le- ances, etc., 

cons, . # 

are cases in which donner loses its proper acceptation, answering in 
French to procurer. 

Separer, to part, to divide, may be said of either persons or things. 

Separez les combattans, Part the combatants. 

Separons les bons d'avec les m^chants, Separate the good from the bad. 

Separons le bon grain du mauvais, Let us part the good from the bad seed. 

Used reflectively, se separer with reference to persons means to 
part. 

Le mari et la femme se sont separ6s, Husband and wife have parted. 
Nous nous separons pour toujours, We part forever. 

1159* Se plaire, to take pleasure, to delight in, requires & before 
infinitives, indeterminate nouns, or any other preposition claimed by 
its complement. Personal pronouns with se plaire are indirect 
objects (73): therefore, those complements answer to d moi, a toi, & 
nous, etc., each expressing different connections (830). 

Nous nous plaisons d la campagne, d We are pleased in the country, in town. 

la ville, • 

Je me plais d Studier, d lire, d tra- I delight in study, reading, and work- 

vailler (861), ing. 

Vous vous plaisez en ville, en cam- You are pleased in town, in the country, 

pagne, en societe (824), » in society. 

H se plait dans (825) la maison, sur He is pleased in the house, on the water, 

l'eau, en classe, d table, au lit, in school, at table, in bed. 

1160. In common with pronominal verbs having for direct com- 
plement their objective pronoun, se depdcher, se hater, corresponding 
with to make haste, to hurry, require indirect objects after them. 



520 GRAMMAR. 

Depechez-vous de finir vos jeux (41), Make haste and finish your plays, 
Hatez-vous dans ce que vous faites, Hurry about what you are doing, 
D6pechons-nous en travaillant, Let us work diligently. 

Remark.— In the first example, the preposition de placed before 
the infinitive finir takes the place, of the conjunction et, and, used 
in French to connect two imperatives (1228). 

Prenez et mangez ceci, Take and eat this. 

1160 bis. Se servir, to use, requires the preposition de before 
indirect objects, the pronouns me, te, se, etc., being direct comple- 
ments, answering to moi, toi, lui, elle (73). 

Se passer has two significations in French. 

Signifying to do without, to dispense with, its objective pronoun is 
a direct object. 

Corresponding with to hand, to reach, the objective pronouns in- 
direct objects answer to d moi, d toi, d lui, d elle. 

Therefore, according to the general principles of complements 
(704, 705), with an indirect complement in the first case and a 
direct one in the last, we will say : 

Vous passerez-vous de ce livre ? Can you do without that book ? 

Pouvez-vous vous passer de votre Can you dispense with your brother ? 

frere ? 

Nous nous passerons ce livre, We will pass around that book among us, 

Vous me passerez le pain et la viande, You will reach me the bread and meat. 

Remark. — Standing for the indirect objects of him, of her, of them, 
of it, the word en always renders needless the use of the preposition 
de, which it carries within itself (415, 799). 

Therefore, speaking of a man, horse, or carriage, we may say : 

Nous n'en avons pas besoin (377), We do not need it. 

Conjugated unipersonally, se passer signifies to happen, to occur, 
to go on (1152). 

II se passe d'etranges choses dans le Strange things occur in this world, 

monde, 

Nous venons voir ce qui se passe* We come to see what is going on, 

L'hiver se passe ou s'ecoule lentement, Whiter goes on at a slow pace. 

Se rendre corresponds with to surrender, to grant, to come. 

L'ennemi s'est rendu a discretion, The enemy surrendered unconditionally. 

lis nous ont rendu hommage (780), They granted us their favors. 

Nous nous sommes rendus a l'heure We came in time. 
(777), 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 521 

Used in the passive voice, rendre corresponds with to be spent with 
fatigue. 
Laissez-moi reposer, car je suis rendu, Let me rest, for I am spent icith fatigue. 

1161. In the active voice, tromper corresponds with the Eng- 
lish verb to deceive. 

lis trompent le public par leurs faus- They deceive people by false promises. 
ses promesses, 

When this verb is conjugated reflectively, the action which it ex* 
presses, falling on the subject, necessarily corresponds with to mistake. 
Nous nous trompons souvent, We are often mistaken. 

To give more strength to the thought, a second pronoun direct 
object is employed by pleonasm (856). 

Nous nous trompons souvent nous- We often deceive ourselves. 
memeSy 

The English language has no construction corresponding to the 
above figurative expression. 

1162. Conjugated actively, ennuyer (959) means to weary, to bore, 
to tease others. 

Used reflectively, with reference to its subject receiving and suffer- 
ing the action expressed, it has the same signification, though with 
a different connection* 

Ce mauvais avocat ennuie l'auditoire, That pettifogger lores his hearers. 

Ces petits-maitres s'ennuyent, Those dandies are bores to themselves. 

Nous nous ennuvons de nous-m ernes We are tired of ourselves. 
(633), 

1163. Connaitre — formerly spelled connoistre (434), — conjugated 
reflectively in French, means to know one's self, to be acquainted with, 
to be a judge of persons or things. 

Connais-toi toi-meme, Know yourself or thyself. 

Ce monsieur se connait en musique, That gentleman is a judge in music, 
en peinture, en architecture : il painting, and architecture : he is 

se connait aussi en hommes, also a judge of men.* 

When used in the same meaning, s 1 entendre may replace se con- 
naitre. 

Cette dame s'entend en musique et en That lady is a judge of music and 
poesie, poetry. 

* For a false definition, see Fasquelle's Method, p. 117-4. 



522 GRAMMAR. 

S* 'entendre may also have the meaning of to understand (1107). 

With reference to things, we may say : 

Cela s'entend, ou cela se comprend, That is understood, 

Cette idee s'entend ou se comprend That thought is easily understood. 
facilement, 

Entendre parler corresponds with to hear from, or to hear people 
talk. 

With, the first meaning it requires the preposition de before indirect 
objects; with the last signification it may have direct or indirect ob- 
jects (69, 70). 

Nous entendons parler de lui, d'elle, We hear from him, from her, from 

d'eux, them. 

Vous le8 entendez parler de cette You hear them speak of that affair. 

affaire, 

Entendre son affaire signifies to know what toe are about (891). 
N'entendre que le son d'une cloche, is to look only at one side of the 
question, or to listen to a party. 

N' entendre que son interest, to see nothing but our interest. 
Entendre raison, to be reasonable, to listen to reason. 

1164. Marcher, neuter verb, to walk, used reflectively, se marcher, 
means to tread on, in English. 

Je me suis marche sur le pied, I trod upon my foot. 

Vous vous etes marche" sur la main, You trod on your hand. 

lis se sont marche sur eux-memes, They trod upon themselves. 

The first of these examples, for instance, answers to J'ai march6 
sur le pied a moi, in which the indirect complements sur le pied, & 
moi, express two different connections (832). 

In such cases, the action expressed by the verb falls on the subject, 
the auxiliary to be expressing situation. To indicate actions per- 
formed by the subject on a passive agent, we must use the auxiliary 
to have (715). 
Vous w'avez marche" sur le pied, You trod on my foot. 

Answering, grammatically, to "Vous avez march6 sur le pied d 
moi." 

In the foregoing examples, therefore, the objective pronouns are 
indirect objects, answering to a moi, a vous, a eux, neuter verbs 
having only indirect complements (91). 

1165. In French, promener is a word of indeterminate meaning, 
requiring always complements to limit its signification. When loco- 
motion for exercise, pleasure, or health is to be expressed, pro- 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 523 

mener-d-pied corresponds with to walk, to go on foot. In every other 
case the French use marcher. 

Nous nous promenons dans le jardin, We take a icalk in the garden. 

Avez-vousmarchedelavillejusqu'ici? Bid you walk from the town to this 

(828), place f 

Nous marchons pour nous promener, We walk for exercise. 

Promener a cheval, en voiture, en To ride on horseback, in a carriage, 
bateau, en chemin-de-fer, en on a railroad, ascend in a balloon, 

ballon, etc. 

are expressions involving always ideas of diversion or amusement. 



Promener-a-pied, 
Promeii er- a -che val, 
Promener en voiture, 
Promener en bateau, 
Promener en ballon, 
Promener en chemin de fer, 



correspond to the 
English expressions 



To take a walk. 

To ride on horseback. 

To ride in a carriage. 

To sail in a boat. 

To ascend in a balloon. 

To ride on a railroad. 



With a figurative meaning we will say : 



Promener les yeux, promener la vue, To look on, to gaze. 
Promener son imagination, ses idees, To let our imagination, our ideas, 

wander. 

Promener may signify to wander, in English, when locomotion is 
meant. 

Fl&ner is to loaf, to waste time. 

Flaneur is a loafer. 

Promeneur is a person fond of walking for diversion. Marcheur 
answers to a walker. It is used also with reference to ships: 

Ce navire est un bon marcheur, That ship sails fast. 

The familiar expression allez-vous promener answers to the Eng- 
lish go to ! 

Should the simple mode of locomotion be expressed, promener is 
replaced by aller, to go, used intransitively; — viz.: with indirect 
complements. 

Nous allons a, chevai, en voiture, d We go on horseback, in a carriage, on 
pied, en ballon, en chemin-de-fer, foot, in a balloon, by railroad. 

Aller is used transitively, when followed by direct complements 
(91). 

Nous allons notre train, We go our own gait. 

45 



524 GRAMMAR. 

Whether mounted or on foot, cheminer signifies to go along a road. 

Nos montures cheminaient lentement Our beasts were getting on slowly, 

(1185), 

Harasses par la fatigue d'une Ion gue Exhausted by the fatigue of a long 

marche, les fantassins avancaient march, the infantry progressed 

p§niblement, slowly. 

Pi6ton answers to a foot-passenger ; chevaucher, to go along on 
horseback. 

Se mettre en selle is to mount a horse. 

Le boute-selle is the signal given by trumpeters to saddle horses. 

1166. With reference to health, se porter answers to Ure (1008), 
alter (1013). Referring to passions, it corresponds with to be carried 
to, in English (1171). 

Je me porte bien, grace-a-Dieu ! / am in good health, thanh God ! 

Nous allons bien, nous sommes bien, We are well, we are doing well. 

Bans votre colere vous vous portez You always fall into excesses when 
toujours a des exces, angry. 

lie 1 ?. Se souvenir, se rappeler, both signifying to remember, are 
verbs of a different nature in French. The first has its objective 
pronoun for direct object, the last for its indirect. Therefore we will 



Je me souviens de cela, j f rememher thaL 

Je me rappelle cela, J 

In these examples, me, answering to moi, is the direct object of 
souvenir; de cela is the indirect. Me, answering to a moi, is the in- 
direct complement or object of rappeler (108); cela is the direct. 
Accordingly, say: Je me le rappelle, je m'en souviens, and not Je 
m y en rappelle, je me le souviens (921). 

1168* Referring to persons or things, coucher means to lie down. 
Conjugated reflectively, se coucher means to go to bed, for persons, 
or to go to rest, for animals. 

Nous allons nous coucher (873), We are going to bed. 

Les poules vont se coucher, The hens are going to roost, or to rest. 

In other cases, se coucher requires determinatives to limit its sig- 
nification, or s'allonger, to lie down, may take its place. 

Se coucher par terre, sur un banc, sur To lie on the ground, on a bench, on a 
un soph a (934), sofa. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 525 

Used with reference to persons, coucher cannot correspond with to ' 
retire, unless determined by the substantive bed, either expressed or 
understood, as shown in this example: 

I retire early in the evening, while I go to bed very late. 

This elliptical sentence answers to, I go home very early and go to 
bed very late. 

Se lever signifies to arise, to get up. 

Nous nous levons de bonne-heure, We get up early. ^ 

In French, se lever, se coucher, are said of the sun, moon, stars, 
winds, fogs, persons, etc. 

Le soleil se l&ve, mon pere se leve, The sun rises, my father rises from 

bed. 
La lune se eouche, cette etoile se leve, The moon goes down, that star rises. 
Le brouillard se leve, le vent se leve, The fog is rising, the wind rises. 

To express cessation of wind, fog, rain, the French use cesser, to 
stop, or go down. 

Le vent cesse, le brouillard cesse, la The wind stops, the fog scatters, the 
brise cesse, breeze goes down. 

Conjugated actively, coucher may correspond with to write down, in 
English. 

Le greffier coucha ma deposition sur The recorder wrote down my testimony. 
son regitre (974), 

Remark. — Greffe, masculine, answers to records-office; feminine, 
a graft. 

When furniture is meant, eouche answers to a couch; bed, when 
gardening is concerned ; coat, referring to painting. 

Cette eouche est moelleuse, That couch is soft. 

Ces boiseries ont recu deux couches, Those wainscotings have had two coats 

of paint. 
tPai une eouche magnifique de fleurs / have a beautiful bed of flowers in my 
dans mon jardin, garden. 

Coucher en joue is to take aim, to level a firearm. 
Se coucher a plat ventre, to lie flat on the ground. 
Bon-coucheur, mauvais-coucheur, correspond to good fellow, trouble- 
some fellow. 

1169. S'approcher, se rapprocher, are said of persons and things. 
S' eloigner means to draw back. The objective pronoun of these 



526 GRAMMAR. 

verbs being direct objects, words completing their signification are 
indirect complements. 
We will say : 

Rapprochez-vous de moi (41), Draw near me. 

Approchons-nous du feu, Let us draw near the fire. 

Nous nous rapprochons d'eux, We draw near them. 

II s'approche satis crainte, He comes near without fear. 

Vous vous rapprochez en tremblant, You come near with fear. 

II s'approche pour vous parler, He draws near to speak to you. 

Us s'eldlgnent sans mot dire, They withdraw without saying a word. 

lis se rapprochent de la table, They draw near the table. 

11TO. Conjugated actively, asseoir, to set, in the reflective voice, 
s y asseoir, referring to persons, means to sit down. In the first accept- 
ation it may be employed with reference to either persons or things. 

Ma maison est assise sur le roc, My house is set upon the rock. 

Ma soeur est assise sur une chaise-a- My sister is seated on a rocking-chair. 

bascule, 

II s'est assis par-terre, He sat down on the ground. 

1171. Se tenir, s'en tenir, in the reflective voice, may signify to 
remain, or to abide. Conjugated actively, it may be used idiomati- 
cally for to keep, to maintain. 

Elle se tient satisfaite de cela, She remains satisfied with that. 

Nous nous en tiendrons a ce que vous We will abide by your decision. 

direz, 
II tiendra le prix du ble, He will keep or maintain the price of 

wheat. 

Occasionally reflective (98), se porter has many significations. 
Used with reference to health, it means to be well, or unwell (1012). 

H se porte bien, elle se porte mal, He is well, she is unwell. 

Referring to acts upon ourselves, having for indirect object its 
objective pronouns, se porter is followed by direct complements (704). 

II s'est porte un coup mortel, He gave (to) himself a mortal blow. 

On the contrary, when expressing inward motions, the objective 
pronoun of that verb becoming a direct object, se porter must be 
followed by indirect complements. 

I/un et 1' autre se portent d des exces, Both carry the thin-g to excess. 

In the first example, se, answering to d lui, is an indirect object 
(73). In the last, se, answering to lui, is a direct complement (74). 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 



527 



Reflective verbs seem particularly adapted to the genius of the 
French language, but are very seldom used in English. In the 
frequent use of those verbs will be found the majority of the idio- 
matic constructions with which students will meet. Therefore, they 
must early be taught how to surmount that difficulty by substituting 
the reflective voice, in French, for the active or passive, used so fre- 
quently in English (1217). 



I repent, I walk, or take a walk, 
That sells high, or is sold high, 
Much wheat is harvested, or they 

harvest, etc., 
He grows old, it grows late, 
She loves herself too much, 
We are getting familiar with those 

customs, 
I have a merrv time, or I take some 

(1152), 



Je me repent, je me promene. 

Cela se vend cher. 

II 8e recolte beaucoup de hie. 

U se fait vieux, il se fait tard. 

Elle s'aime trop. 

^Xous nous faisons d ces usages. 

Je m'en donne. 



1172. The following verbs, 



S'emouvoir, 

S'elever, 

S'impressioner, 

Se recueillir, 

Se tuer, 

Se nourrir, 

S'emporter, 



answering to 



To move or agitate 

To raise or rise 

To impress 

To collect 

To kill or exert 

To feed 

To fly in a jwssion, 



one's self, 



in the reflective voice refer always to actions performed and suffered 
by subjects. When the objective pronouns of those verbs are direct 
complements, indirect objects may complete the signification of such 
verbs. Should they be indirect, they require direct complements. 

Je me flatte de reussir, / hope to be successful. 

Nous nous tuons de lui dire de se taire, We entreat him to hold his tongue. 

Je m'arroge ce droit, / attribute that right to myself. 

Nous nous rappelons cela, We remember that. 

Remark. — It must be borne in mind that reflective verbs, formed 
from neuter verbs, are an exception to this rule, as shown in numbers 
1159 and 1164; they require indirect complements. 

11*73. Conjugated actively, dtmettre signifies to dislocate, to dis- 
miss. 

Je lui a deinis l'epaule. I have dislocated his shoidder. 

Vous lui avez demis le bras, You dislocated his arm. 

Cet employe est demis de son emploi, That public officer is dismissed. 

Used reflectively, se de'mettre means to dislocate one's self, to resign 
of one's self. 

45* 



52S grammar. 

Elle s'est disloquee ou demis la cheville She dislocated her ankle in dancing. 

en dansant, 
Us se sont demis de leurs fonctions, They resigned their offices. 

Se rSsigner is to submit, to reconcile, to bend our icill. 

Je me resigne a cela, I submit to that. 

Referring to public offices, re'signer, se de'mettre, have the same 
meaning, — viz.: one conjugated actively, the other reflectively. 

J'ai resigne" mon emploi, on je me suis I resigned my office or situation. 
demis de mon emploi, 



1174. 

S'emparer, 

S'empecher, 

S'inquieter, answering to 

Se eomporter, 

S'attendre, etc.. 



To take possession 

To prevent . ,- 

To trouble or fret I one s self , 
To behave 



To expect, be ready for, 

having their objective pronoun for direct complement, must be fol- 
lowed by indirect objects. 

H ne peut s'empecher de s'emparer de He cannot help grasping every thing. 

tout, 

II s'inquiete sans motifs, He frets without cause. 

Nous nous comporterons en honnetes We will behave like honest men. 

gens, 

H s'attend a tout, He is expecting the icorst. 

1175. Taire means to conceal; conjugated reflectively, to be silent. 

Nous avons toujours tu nos motifs We always concealed our reasons. 

(435), 
Youlez-vous vous taire, petit bayard? Will you hold your tongue, you little 

rogue ? 

Cesser, to stop, is said of persons and things. 

I/orateur cessa de parler, The speaker stopped talking. 

Le bruit cesse (1168), ■ The noise stops. 

Le vent et la pluie cessent, The wind and rain stop. 

Touclier signifies to handle, with reference to objects; referring to 
sentimental feelings, it corresponds with to touch, to affect (1104). 

H vous touche la main, He touches or shakes your hand. 

Nous toucherons son cosur, We will affect his heart. 

Toucher la main means to touch the hand, or to shake hands. 
Toucher au terme corresponds with to be at the end of a thing. 

1175 bis. Whether an offer is accepted or declined, remercier, in 
French, corresponds with to thank. 



DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS IN SOME VERBS. 529 

Therefore, " Je vous remercie/' in French, may signify, in English: 
J thank you for your offer, or i" thank you for what you have given me. 

Merci, or Je vous remercie, is the ellipsis of those English propo- 
sitions. 

As a demand, "I thank you for this or for that" cannot be used 
in French. 

In such cases, the French adopt the following forms of construc- 
tion: 

Pourriez-vous (ou voudriez-vous) me Will you help me to this or to that ? 

donner de ceci ou de cela ? 

Voulez-vous me servir de viande, s'il Will you help me to meat, if you 

vous plait ? please ? 

"Oserai-je vous demander une aile de cette volaille/' is a formal 
expression, a relic of the days of the French Directory, still presented 
as a model in certain Methods. 

" Puis-je vous demander une aile de volaille?" would be more con- 
sonant with present modes of expression. 

Remercier may signify to dismiss, to turn out, in English. 

J'ai remercie mon commis, / have dismissed my clerk. 

Nous avons ete remercies de nos We have been turned out of office. 

emplois, 

Ce regiment a ete remercie, That regiment has been dismissed. 

"Where it stands for ye vous remercie, the word merci is an implicit 
proposition, in which the subject and verb are understood (486). 

Merci, mesdames, de votre bonte, Thank you, ladies, for your kindness. 

Used substantively with the same meaning, merci is masculine in 
gender. It is feminine when it answers to mercy, or at the mercy of 
others. 

Un aussi beau present vaut un merci, So hands&me a gift deserves thanks. 
Nous sommes a la merci de ces We are at the mercy of those wiiked 
mechants (1025 bis), men. 

Merci may be used to express rejection of an offer, corresponding 
with to decline, in English. 

Merci de vos faveurs a ce prix, Upon such conditions I decline your 

offers. 



530 



GRAMMAR. 



List of Verbs connected without Prepositions with other 

Verbs. 

1176. Some verbs in French come together without prepositions ; 
others, on the contrary, are connected with them. English verbs in 
many cases take prepositions which they drop or change for others 
when translated into French. As no satisfactory rule can be given 
on that subject, we refer learners to practice (762). 

Remark. — The preposition pour, placed before infinitives, answers 
to the conjunctive expression ajin de. 

Among the first class of verbs, those which are connected with- 
out prepositions are the following, illustrated by examples. 

Enfants, accourez leur annoncer cela. 
Nous aimons mieux mourir que de vivre 

dans la honte. 
Allez le voir sans plus tarder. 
Nous nous apercevons de>ier de la 

bonne voie. 
Qui nous assurera vous avoir dans ses 

bonnes graces ? 
Confessez avoir tort, et tout sera dit. 
Je comptais partir ce matin. 
Courez porter secours a ces pauvres 

gens. 
II croit faire bien, et il fait mal. 
Daignez recevoir mes hommages. 
Nous declarons vouloir partir sans plus 

de delais. 
Nous desirons marcher sur vos traces 

(959). 
. Vous devez rendre tout cela? 
Ecoutez-le ronfler. 
Entendez-nous parler (1107). 
Envoyez prendre de l'argent chez le 

banquier (1046 bis). 
Esperez arriver a temps. 
Faites marcher les troupes (1039). 
Faut-il tromper les gens ? 
II s'imagine etre savant. 
Laissez partir cette dame. 
Menons boire nos chevaux (1081 bis). 
Nierez-vous avoir offense Dieu ? 
Observez-vous les astres (910)? This 

verb cannot precede another verb, 

but may stand after another. Ex. : 

Faites observer, veuillez observer. 
Oseriez-vous franchir ce fosse (821 

bis)? 
II parait accabler de mepris ceux qui 

Pont mSconnu (179 bis). 



Accourir, 
Aimer mieux, 


come along, 
prefer. 


Aller, 
Apercevoir, S*, 


go. 
perceive. 


Assurer, 


assure. 


Avouer, 

Compter, 

Courir, 


confess, 
intend, 
run. 


Croire, 

Daigner, 

Declarer, 


believe. 

deign. 

declare. 


Desirer, 


wish. 


Devoir, 
Ecouter, 
Entendre, 
Envoyer, 


be obliged, bound. 

listen. 

hear. 

send. 


EsflSrer, 

Faire, 

Falloir, 

Imaginer, s', 

Laisser, 

Mener, 

Nier, 

Observer, 


hope. 

do. 

be necessary. 

imagine. 

let, suffer. 

lead. 

deny. 

observe. 


Oser, 


dare. 


Paraitre, 


seem. 



CONNECTION OF VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITION A. 531 



Penser, 


think. 


Nous pensons partir avant vous. 


Pouvoir, 


be able. 


Pouvez-vous marcher aussi vite que 
nous (1091)? 


PrStendre, 


pretend. 


Pretend-il parler mieux que moi ? 


Preferer, 


prefer. 


11 prefere marcher que d' aller en voi- 
ture. 


Protester, 


protect. 


Elle proteste vouloir y aller. 


Rappeler, s', 


remember. 


Nous nous rappelons avoir dit cela. 


Rapporter, 


report. 


Rapportez-vous avoir compris. 


Rapporter, 


bring back. 


Connects with nouns. 


Reconnaitre < 


i acknowledge. 


Reconnaissez-vous avoir trompe cet 
homme (1161). 


Regarder, 


look at. 


Regardons passer ce monde. 


Retourner, 


return. 


Retournons voir ces beaux chevaux. 


Re venir, 


come back. 


Revenez ecouter mes sermons. 


S avoir, 

1 to - 


know. 


Savoir vivre est un art qui n'est pas 




connu de tout le monde (1074). 


Semblei, 


seem. 


Seinbler connaitre n'est pas reellement 
connaitre. 


Sentir, 


feel. 


11 sent venir Forage. 


Sentir, 


smell. 


Connects -with substantives. 


Souhaiter, 


icish. 


Je souhaiterais parler a votre mere. 


Soutenir, 


maintain. 


Nous soutenons avoir prononce" ce mot. 


Temoigner, 


testify. 


Vous temoignez vouloir y aller sans 
conditions. 


Yaloir mieux, 


be better. 


H vaut mieux marcher dans la bonne 


Venir, 


come. 


voie. 
Venez faire vos affaires avant tout 
(1026). 


Voir, 


see. 


Nous voyons venir la tempete. 


Vouloir, 


be willing. 


Vouloir faire sa volonte n'est pas tou- 




i, 


jours aise (764). 



For verbs connected with infinitives by the preposition a or de, see 
No. 763. 

He mark. — To master the French language, it will be indispensable 
for pupils to be perfectly acquainted with the practical use of pre- 
positions. By limiting indeterminate verbs with complements requir- 
ing prepositions, and taking those examples as models for exercise, 
they may acquire that practice which can never be attained by the 
mere study of theory. 



1177. Verbs connected with infinitives by the preposition &. 



Abaisser, s', 

Aboutir, 

Accorder, s', 
Accoutumer, 
Acharner, s', 
Admettre, 
Aguerrir, s', 
Aider, 



stoop. Nous ne nous abaisserons jamais d le 

faire. 
end in. Aboutira-t-il d faire comme tout le 

monde ? 
agree. lis s'accordent a dire qu'ils ont tort. 

accustom. Accoutumons-nous d dire vrai. 

strive. Acharnons-nous a travailler. 

admit. Admettons-le d partager nos benefices. 

inure one's self. Aguerrissons-nous a faire comme eux, 
help. Aidez-nous d faire la besogne. 



532 



GRAMMAR. 



Aimer (1229), 

Appliquer, s', 

Apprendre, 

Appreter, 

Aspirer, 

Assigner, 

Assujettir, 

Attendre, s', 
Appreter, s', 
Autoriser, 
Avilir, &', 
Avoir, 
Balancer, 
Borner, se, 
Chercher, 

Complaire, se, 
Concourir, 
Condamner, se, 

Condescendre, 

Consentir, 

Conspirer, 

Consister, 
Consumer, 

Contribuer, 
Convier, 

C outer, 

Determiner, se, 

Determiner, 
Disposer, se, 

Divertir, se, 

Employer, s', 
Encourager, 

Engager, 

Engager, s', 

Enhardir, s\ 
Enseigner, 

Etre, 

Entendre, s', 

Evertuer, s', 
Exceller, 
Exciter, s', 



love. Nous aimons d causer (1137 bis). 

endeavor. II s'applique d faire vite et bien. 

learn. Nous apprenons d dessiner. 

prepare. Elle s'apprete d partir. 

aspire. Nous aspirons d faire le bien. 

summon. lis sont assignes d comparaitre. 

subject. Elle est assujettie d travailler pour son 

pain. 
anticipate. Attendons-nous d voir ces choses. 

prepare. Elle s'apprete d faire cela. 

authorize. Nous Tautorisons (fcrester chez nous. 

debase. lis se sont avilis d faire ce trafic. 

have. Nous avons d faire avec tout le monde. 

balance, hesitate. Balanceriez-vous d partir sur Fheure ? 
confine one's self. II se borne d dire ce qu'il pense. 
try, to look. Vous cherchez d tromper ce brave- 

homme. 
delight. Vous vous complaisez d vous admirer. 

concur. Nous concourons a chanter sa louange. 

condemn. II s'est condamne d faire comme les 

autres (966). 
condescend. II condescend d se retirer d'ici. 

consent. Nous consentons d venir les voir. 

conspire. Vous conspirez.cirenverser le gouverne- 

ment. 
consist. Le tout consiste d se taire. 

consume. II consume son existence d etudier 

Thistoire (880). 
contribute. Cela contribuera d faire des heureux. 

invite. Conviez-le d aller d la noce, ou aux 

noces (288). 
cost. Cette demarche vous coutera d faire 

sans doute (800). 
resolve. Elle s'est determined a prendre des 

aliments. 
induce. D6terminez le d travailler. 

prepare. Nous nous disposons d quitter cet en- 

droit (1088). 
amuse. Ces enfants se divertissent d courir et 

d jouer. 
employ. II s'emploie d travailler (111). 

encourage. Nous nous encourageons d Studier 

(107). 
induce. Vous nous engagez d persister dans 

notre resolution. 
plight one's self. II s'engage d faire ce dont il n'est pas 

capable. 
encourage. Ce jeune enfant s'enhardit d marcher. 

teach. Enseignez d parler avant d'enseigner 

d ecrire. 
be. Nous sommes d ecrire une lettre (162, 

715). 
be expert. Cette femme s'entend d faire la cuisine 

(1163). 
strive. II s'eVertue d faire bien, et il fait znal. 

excel in. Elle excelle d toucher du piano. 

excite. Nous excitons d travailler. 



CONNECTION OF VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITION A. 533 



Exhort er, 


' exhort. 


Exposer, s', 


expose one's self. 


Fatiguer, se, 
Habituer, s', 


fatigue, tire, 
inure. 


Hasarder, se, 


venture. 


Hesiter, 


hesitate. 


Instruire, 


instruct. 


Interesser, 


interest. 


Inviter, 


invite. 


Mettre, se, 


commence. 


Mettre, 


put, set. 


Montrer, 


show, teach. 


Obstiner, s', 


p>ersist. 


Oflfrir, s', 


offer. 


Pencher, 


incline. 


Penser, 


think. 


Perseverer, 


persevere. 


Persister, 


persist. 


Plaire, se, 
Prendre plaisir, 


delight in. 
take pleasure. 


Preparer, se, 
Porter, 


prepare, 
induce. 


ProYoquer, 


urge. 


Pousser, 


press. 


Presser, 


induce. 


Reduire, 


constrain. 


Reduire, 


be forced. 


Renoncer, 


renounce. 


Repugner, 


be repugnant. 


Re signer, se, 

Rester, 
Reussir, 


reconcile one's 

self, 
tarry, 
succeed. 


Risquer, 


risk. 


Servir, 


serve. 


Songer, 


think. 


Suffire, 


be adequate. 


Tarder, 
Tendre, 


delay, 
incline. 


Tenir, 


have a mind. 


Travailler, 


work. 



Exhortez-le d faire son devoir. 

II s'expose d dire (ou d faire) plus qu'il 

ne devrait. 
Nous nous sommes fatigues d marcher. 
Comme les autres elle doit s'habituer d 

souffrir. 
Vous hasarderez-vous d voyager sur 

l'eau ? 
N'hesitez pas d dire la verite. 
Instruisez-nous d gouverner nos pas- 
sions. 
Yous etes interesse d faire ce qu'on 

vous dira. 
Nous sommes invites d rester. 
II se met a travailler (1041 bis, 1157), 

a Tinstant. 
Mettons-le d travailler. 
Enseignez-le, on montrez-lui d se taire, 

et vous Tenseignerez a reflechir. 
S'obstiner a faire a sa tete (1026). 
Nous nous offrons d obeir ses ordres. 
Nous penchons d croire qu'il a tort. 
Elle pense & faire votre volonte, non la 

sienne. 
Persevereriez-vous d croire ce qui est 

absurde ? 
Nous persistons d suivre cette marche. 
Nous nous plaisons d faire votre eloge. 
II prend plaisir d s'entendre louer 

(1118). 
Nous nous preparons d partir. 
Portez-le d faire le bien et non le mal. 
Provoquez-le d quitter la maison. 
Pressez-le d venir nous voir. 
Pressons-les d faire cela. 
Reduisez-le d obeir. 
Nous sommes reduits d souffrir. 
Renonceriez-vous d etudier le francais 

(1090). 
Quoique vraie, cette chose nousrepugne 

d dire. 
Nous sommes resignes d vivre dans la 

pauvrete. 
Restons d parler de cela. 
Reussissons d aplanir ces difficultes. 
Nous risquerons-nous d jouer et d 

perdre (1104). 
Cela sert d faire notre travail. 
Songez-vous d faire votre malle 

(1026) ? 
Cela suffira d satisfaire son amour- 
propre. 
Vous tardez trop d partir. 
Nous tendons d faire mieux. 
Vous tenez d reussir cotlte que coute 

(1060 bis, 1062). 
Je travaille d renverser un faux system© 

d'enseignement. 



534 



GRAMMAR. 



Viser, 
Vouer, se, 



f aim at, 
to < devote one's self. 



Visant d bien faire, il fait le contraire. 
Nous nous sommes voues d vivre dans 
Tindigence. 



1178. Verbs connected with infinitives by the preposition de. 

Nous nous abstenons de manger (262). 

Vous nous accusez de tromper vos amis. 

lis achevent de lire. 

Vous affectez de parler d'eux. 

lis s'affligent de perdre leur temps. 

It s'agit de gagner de P argent. 

Nous nous applaudirons d' avoir rSussi. 

Vous apprehendez de nager. 

Je vous avertis de changer d'habits 

(1113). 
Nous nous sommes avises de speculer 

comme vous. 
II a besoin de parler, de manger et de 

boire (262). 
lis ont eu soin de se taire (992). 
Nous vous blamons d' avoir agi ainsi. 
Vous brulez Waller vous battre, ou il 

vous tarde d'aller vous battre 

(1141). 
Nous vous censurons d' avoir agi ainsi. 
Cessez d'ecrire et de lire (1168). 
Elle se chagrine d'avoir perdu son pere. 
On le charge a cf aller la trouver (1099). 
II se chargea de vous porter cette 

nouvelle (1066). 
Vous aurez a choisir Waller ou de no 

pas aller. 
Commande-t-on de faire mal. 
Je vous conjure de partir sans delai. 
Nous vous conseillons de venir aveo 

nous. 
Contentez-vous de boire et de manger. 
Vous convaincrez-nous de partir. 
II nous convient d'j aller, ou cT aller la. 
Corrigez-vous d'aller si vite quand vous 

parlez. 
Craignez de tomber en courant (818). 
Nous d£couragerions-nous de faire 

notre devoir ? 
Miserable, vous dedaignez de parler a, 

ce malheureux. 
Je vous defends de sortir seul (819). 
Vous vous defendez oTavoir trop parle. 
Poltron, je vous defie d'j aller ou cT aller 

la. 
Depechez-vous de partir aujourd'hui. 
Desaccoutumez-vous de mentir et de 

prendre, 
Ne desesperez pas de reussir, et vous 

reussirez. 



Abstenir, s J , 
Accuser, s', 
Achever, 
Aflfecter, 
Amiger, s', 
Agir, s', 
Applaudir, s*, 
Apprehender, 
Avertir, 


abstain, 
accuse, 
finish, 
affect, 
afflict, 
be question, 
applaud, 
be afraid, 
warn. 


Aviser, s', 


bethink. 


Avoir besoin, 


want. 


Avoir soin, 
B lamer, 
B ruler, 


take care, 

blame, 

burn. 


Censurer, 
Cesser, 

Chagriner, se, 
Charger, 
Charger, se, 

Choisir, 


censure. 

stop, cease. 

grieve. 

instruct. 

take upon our 

selves, 
choose. 


Commander, 

Conjurer, 

Conseiller, 


command. 

beseech. 

advise. 


Contenter, 
Convaincre, 


be satisfied, 
convince. 


Convenir, 
Corriger, 


suit, agree, 
co?*rect. 


t!raindre, 
D6courager, 


fear, 
discourage. 


DSdaigner, 


disdain. 


Defend re, 
Defendre, se, 
Defier, 


forbid, 
decline, 
challenge. 


Depecher, 
Desaccoutumer, se, 


haste, 
leave off. 


Desesperer, 


despair. 



CONNECTION OF VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITION DE. 535 



Desoler, se, 


' grieve. 


Detourner, 
Differer, 


dissuade, 
postpone, differ. 


Dire, 
Disconvenir, 


say, tell, 
deny. 


Discontinue^ 


discontinue. 


Dispenser, 
Dispenser, se, 
Disculper, se, 
Dissuader, 


dispense, 
exempt one f s self, 
exculpate, 
dissuade. 


D outer,- 


doubt. 


Eflforcer, 8', 
Empecher, 
Empresser, s', 


en deavor. 

prevent. 

hurry. 


Epouvanter, s', 
Entreprendre, 


be frightened, 
undertake. 


Enrager, 
Etonner, s', 


be vexed. 

be astonished. 


Eviter, 


avoid. 


Excuser, s', to ■ 


excuse. 


Feliciter, 
Feindre, 
Flatter, se, 


congratulate, 
simulate, 
flatter one's self. 


Flatter, 
Fremir, 


flatter, 
shudder. 


Grarder, se, 


refrain. 


Gemir, 


groan. 


Grlorifier, se, 


exalt. 


Hasarder, 


hazard. 


Hater, 
Imputer, 
Ingerer, s', 


haste. 

impute. 

meddle. 


Inspirer, 


inspire. 


Jurer, 


swear. 


Manquer, 
Mediter, 
Meier, se, 
Menacer, 


fail, 
think, 
undertake, 
threaten. 



II se desole d'avoir perdu une forte 

somme au jeu. 
Detournez le cf aller en Californie. 
Nous differons de partir. Nous diflfe- 

rons oT opinions. 
Vousnous dites cZ'aller en Amerique. 
Nous disconvenons cT avoir fait ce tra- 
vail. 
Vous pouvez discontinuer cZ'emprunter 

ou a emprunter (889). 
Dispensez-vous de faire tant de tapage. 
II se dispense de venir nous voir. 
Se disculperont-ils cf avoir mal agi ? 
Dissuadez-les de venir avant cette 

6poque. 
Doutez-vous de bien faire, ou de faire 

bien. 
Eflforcons nous de reussir. 
Empechez-le de tomber. 
II s'empressa de partir avant le jour 

fixe. 
Nous nous epouvantons de mal faire. 
Vous entreprenez de faire plus que vous 

ne pouvez. 
II enrage d'etre oblige de partir sit6t. 
Nous nous etonnons d'avoir entendu 

ces mots sortir de votre bouche. 
Evitons Waller a leur encontre. 
Excusez-le rf'avoir si mal fait. II s'ex- 

cuse d' avoir si mal parle. 
Nous vous felicitons Waller a Rome. 
Feignez de partir et revenez aussitot. 
Flattons-nous d'avoir mieux fait 

qu'eux. 
II le flatte rf'avoir fait ainsi. 
Nous fremissons cZ'avoir couru ce 

risque. 
Gardons-nous de mentir (1058). 
Nous gemissons d'avoir perdu tant 

d'amis. 
Vous vous glorifiez cTavoir recu le 

prix. 
Hasardons de traverser la rivi&re. 

Hasardons-nous d traverser. 
Hatez -vous de passer le pont. 
lis nous imputent d'avoir tort (988). 
II s'ingere ou se mele de faire la 

savant. 
Ce sont eux qui lui inspirent de faire 

le mal. 
Nous jurons de reussir ou de succomber 

(1092). 
II a manque d'en passer par la. 
Nous meditons de faire plus encore. 
II se mele de monter a cheval (1121). 
Vous menacez de frapper tout le 

monde. 

46 



536 



GRAMMAR. 



Meriter, 


deserve. 


Moquer, se, 


laugh at. 


Mourir, 


die, or long. 


Xegliger, 
Xier, 


neglect, 
deny. 


Pardonner, 


forgive. 


Parler, 
Passer, to, 


speak. 

do without. 


Permettre, 


permit. 


Persuader, 
Piquer, se,, 


persuade, 
take pride it 


Plaindre, 


pity. 


Plaindre, se, 


complain. 


Prendre garde, 


mind. 


Prendre soin, 


take care. 


Prescrire, 
Presser, 


prescribe, 
haste. 


Presser, se, 


hurry. 


Presumer, to • 
Prier, 


jyresume. 
pray, icish, 


Promettre, 


promise. 


Proposer. se, 


intend. 


Proposer, 


propose. 


Protester, 


protest. 


Punir, 


punish. 


Rebuter, se, 


be disgusted. 


Recommander, 


recommend. 


Refuser. 


refuse. 


Regretter, 
Rejouir, se, 


regret, 
rejoice. 


Remercier, 


thank. 


R.epentir, se, 


repent. 


Reprendre, 


correct. 


Reprimander, 


reprimand. 


Reprocher, se, 


reproach. 



H merit e cfetre puni de sa faute. 
Xous nous moquons de Tentendre 

parler de la sorte. 
H meurt de ne pouvoir faire comme 

les autres. 
Nous negligeons de faire nos affaires. 
Xierez-rous de l'avoir accueilli chez- 

yous (818 bis)? 
Lui pardonnerez-vous d' aToir frappS 

cet enfant ? 
Vous parlez rf'aller le voir. 
Xous pouvons nous passer ri"aller la, 

on d 
Permettez-nous de Tenir tous Toir 

tan: 
Persuadez-le de chanter (111 
Xous nous piquons de youloir du bien 

a tout le monde. 
Plaignez-nous cTavoir mal fait, ou 

d'avoir fait mal. 
Xous nous plaignons tf'aller si k 

ment. 
H prend garde de tomber (II 
Xous prenons soin a" aller moins rite. 
PrescriTez-lui de rester chez-lui. 
Pressez-le cTecrire a a 
Hatez-vous rf'arriver pour le voir, ou 

:ez-vous d' arriver, etc. 
Xe presumez pas de r: u lui. 

Je vous prie cT aller la, ou d\ aller. 
Proniettez-nioi de partir demain sans 

y manquer. 

- nous propc ; :nir ce soir. 

Xous proposons de tous vendre 

maison. 
Yous protestez d* vouloir partir avec 

elle. 

Broil fait un mauvais 

choix. 
Xous nous rebutons de travailler sans 

gages (599). 
On nous a recommande d' aller au pas 

sur ce pont. 

le faire sa volont£. 
II regrette de partir ri 
Xous nous rejouissons d' avoir fai: 

ou de l'avoir fait. 
Remercions-le cTagir loyalement avec 

nous. 
II se repent de n' avoir pas etudi£ pen- 
dant son enfance (783). 
Xous le reprenons de faire tort aux 

aur: 
II le reprimande d' aller trop noncha- 

lamnient, 

nous reprocbons tf' avoir mal 

r£ussi par notre faute. 



COINCIDENCES 



537 



RSsoudre, 


resolve. 


Ressouvenir, se, 


remember. 


Rire, 

Rougir, 
Scandaliser, se, 


laugh, 
blush, 
scandalize. 


Seoir, 


become. 


Sommer, 


summon. 


Soup Conner, to - 


suspect. 


Souvenir, se, 


remember. 


Suffire, 


be sufficient. 


Suggerer, 


suggest. 


Supplier, 
Tenter, 


supplicate, 
tempt, try. 


Trembler, 


tremble. 


Vanter, se, 


boast. 



Nous avons resolu cfaller a son en- 

contre. 
Ressouvenons-nous d'apporter de 

Fargent. 
Riez-vous de les voir tomber ? 
Vous rougissez d' avoir menti. 
lis se scandalisent de. voir de pareilles 

choses. 
Lui sied-il de s'arroger un pareil pri- 
vilege (784)? 
Nous le sommerons de paraitre devant 

la justice. 
Je le soupconne d'avoir commis un 

faux. 
Souvenez-vous Waller le prendre chez- 

lui? 
II leur suffira de se presenter. 
Suggerez-lui d'etre prudent dans ses 

paroles et dans ses actions. 
Suppliez-le de nous pardonner. 
Teutons de faire honneur a nos affaires 

(1134). 
Malheureux, tremblez d' avoir commis 

ce crime. 
Yantez-vous d' avoir ramene l'ordre ? 



CHAPTER TWENTY-SIXTH. 



Some Coincidences and Dissidences between the two Languages. 



117S bis. Verbs in propositions are presented under two different 
forms: affirmative and interrogative. The word phrase in French, as 
we have remarked, corresponds with sentence in English (454). 

Therefore, according to the meaning of common substantives used 
in each proposition, affirmative sentences may be determinate, indeter- 
minate, partitive, or negative, each division having & positive meaning. 

Affirmative sentences are determinate when common substantives 
used in them represent a genus, a species, or a simple individual 
(307), and are limited by qualifiers or complements. 



L'homme est une creature raisonnable, 
Les hommes bons sont estimables, 
L'homme gris est dc retour, 



J fan is a reasonable being. 
Good men are to be esteemed. 
The man in gray has come back, or the 
drunk man, etc. (1025 bis). 



538 GRAMMAR. 

Affirmative sentences are indeterminate when substantives repre- 
sent no genus, species, or private individual ', but refer to them only in 
a vague manner. 

Un homme sans merite, A man without talent. 

TJne maisoii de pierre, A stone house. 

Agir avec prudence, To act prudently. 

In such cases, the forms of the determinate article are dropped, 
or replaced by the numeral adjective un, line, answering to a, or an, 
in English sentences (541). 

Affirmative sentences are partitive when common substantives re- 
present parts of genera, species or classes, or parts or fractions of 
things (536, 537). Partitive sense is always determinate. 

Des hommes pensent ainsi, Some men think so. 

Quelques hommes sages y croient, Some wise men believe it. 

Be Tor ou de Fargent est necessaire, Some gold or silver is needed. 

Affirmative sentences are negative, in French, when, modified by 
ne, pas, or any other negative word, the affirmation of the verb asserts 
that something is not (31). Therefore, negative sense is also affirma- 
tive (20, 164). 

Ces hommes ne pensent pas ainsi, Those men do not think so. 

Nous n'avons ni livres ni plumes, We have neither books nor pens. 

Vous n'avez ni l'argent ni les moyens, You have neither money nor means. 

Remark. — Representing parts of genera, species, or classes, parts 
or fractions of things, partitive sense is always determinate, though 
determinate sense may not always be partitive; negative sense may 
be determinate, when substantives used in sentences have a deter- 
minate signification; — viz.: limited by complements. 

Nous n'avons pas le livre qu'on nous We have not the book promised vs. 
avait promis, 

Here the meaning is negative determinate, the complement qiCon 
nous avait promis requiring the use of the determinate article. 

Nous n'avons pas de livres, We have no books, 

on the contrary, is negative indeterminate, referring vaguely to books 
without mentioning any in particular. 

Instead of assertions, propositions under an interrogative form ex- 
press generally simple queries, leaving doubt as to the nature of the 
answers, which may be determinate, indeterminate, partitive (538), or 



COINCIDENCES AND DISSIDENCES, ETC. 539 

negative. Interrogative sentences, therefore, are also susceptible of 
those different forms of construction. 

Aimez-vous Dieu? Croyez-vous en Do you love God? Do you believe in 

Dieu? God? 

Avez-vous le pain? Have you the bread? 

A-t-on un cheval ? X'avez-vous rien ? Have they a horse? Have you nothing? 

Being the mode of doubt, the subjunctive is used generally in pro- 
positions (737) completing interrogations. To give more strength to 
affirmations, propositions sometimes have the interrogative form. In 
such cases, the indicative mode takes the place of the subjunctive 
in the incidental proposition. This rhetorical figure is frequently 
found in both poetry and prose (738). 

Madame, oubliez-vous que ThSsee est Madam, do you forget that Theseus is 

mon pere, et qu'il est votre my father, and that he is your hus- 

Spoux? band? 

Ignorez-vous que vous en savez moins Are you not aware that you know less 

que lui? than he does? 

With the same purpose of strengthening the thought by the form 
of expression, negative words are used in interrogative forms. 

Ne savez-vous pas que je suis votre Do you not know that I am your master? 
maitre ? 



Place of Nouxs Subjects. 

1179. We have already seen, treating of the arrangement of words, 
that in French or English direct constructions, the subjects of sen- 
tences are generally placed before verbs (861). 

Le vice est odieux, Vice is odious (or hateful). 

L'honinie est la creature de Dieu, Jfan is the creature of God. 

I/aine n'est pas mortelle, The soul is not mortal. 

1180. From this rule interrogative sentences must be excepted, 
in which, contrary to the French construction, English verbs are 
placed before nominatives or subjects (64). 

Le vice est-il odieux? Is vice hateful? 

Cet homine a-t-il fait son travail ? Has that man done his work? 

Ces enfants ne sont-ils pas inechants? Are not those children wicked? 

1181. In interrogative cases, beginning with the adverbs oil, quand, 

answering to where, when, French or English nominatives are alwaya 

placed after verbs. 

r 46* 



510 GRAMMAR. 

Oil va cette femme ? Where is that woman going? 

Quand partira ce monsieur? When will that gentleman go away? 

Oil ne se glisse pas l'erreur? Where does not error insinuate itself? 

Kemark. — The last sentence, in French, might take the form of 
the English construction. We might say : ou Verreur ne se glisse-t-elle 
pas f 

Harmony, and the nature of the thought, must be our chief guide 
in the choice of such expressions. 

1182. Whenever sentences begin with que interrogative, or the 
adverb combien, answering to what, how much, how many, French 
nouns, contrary to the English construction, invariably come after 
verbs (405). 

Que font ces petits-enfants ? What are those children doing? 

Conibien avez-vous (Tamis? How many friends have yon? 

Combien avez-vous d' argent dans votre How much money have you in your 
bourse ? purse ? 

In such cases, it is preferable to place complements of the attri- 
bute after verbs (465). Do not say: Combien d'amis avez-vous? 
Combien de fleurs avez-vous?* 

1183. In both languages verbs are placed before nominatives or 

subjects: 

(1.) In inverted sentences, used generally in poetry or elevated 

composition (861). 

Deja. prenait Tessor pour se sauver Already was soaring to take refuge in 

dans nos montagnes, cet aigle our mountains, that eagle whose 

dont le vol hardi avait d'abord daring flight had at first frightened 

effraye nos provinces, our provinces. 

Such figures of syntax occur frequently in both languages. It is 
with inversion that Milton in his "Paradise Lost" exclaims: 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, . . . 
Syig, heavenly muse," etc. 

The grammatical construction of this passage (852) is: "Heavenly 
muse, sing of man's first disobedience," etc. 

(2.) In incidental propositions, when the words given are not those 
of the speaker (477). 

* See Fagquelle's Method, page 64-1. 



COINCIDENCES AND DISSIDENCES ; ETC. 541 

Heureux, dit le sage, ceux qui se con- Happy, says the wise man, are those who 
tentent de peu, are content with but little, 

(3.) In interrogative cases, when est-ce-que? is not used. 

Etudient-ils? Do they study? 

Font-ils leur devoir? Are they doing their task? 

or when the subjunctive is employed with dropping of the conjunc- 
tion que (621-3). 

Puissent les dieux m'exaucer ! May the gods hear me ! 

answering to Que les dieux puissent m'exaucer ! 

Remark. — Contrary to the English construction, speaking of organs 
or intellectual faculties single in persons, the French generally adopt 
the singular. When those qualities or faculties are double in the 
possessor, they use the plural number. 

Vous et moi pouvons relever la tete, You and I may hold up our heads. 
Ces hommes ont l'esprit pervers, Those men have perverse minds. 

Je le regardai des deux yeux, I fixed my eye on him. 

Remark. — To give the true meaning in French of the last English 
sentence, we must render the possessive adjective my by the form of 
the determinate article (592). 

J'avais Toeil sur lui. 

If we were to say in French: " J'avais mon ceil fixe sur lui," the 
meaning would be that the speaker had but one eye. 

Referring to operations in the mind of several persons, if the 
action is the same in each mind, use the singular; the plural, in 
cases where diversity of action is to be expressed. Unity or plurality 
in the thought will be for us an unerring guide. 

Mon pere et moi avons la meme My father and I have the same thought. 

pensee, 
Vous et moi avons les memes inten- You and I have the same intention. 

tions, 
Elle et lui ont eu la meme idee, She and he had the same idea. 

The word heure, in French, answering to now, in English, is often 
employed to express time (811). 

A cette heure nous sommes contents, Now ice are satisfied. 
A l'heure qu'il est ils sont arrives, They have just arrived. 

Venez a l'heure indiquee, Come at the appointed time. 

Speaking of age or time, the substantives an, heure, must be ex- 



542 



GRAMMAR. 



pressed in French. Speaking of time, the word minute may be under- 
stood (505 bis) 

J'ai vingt ans. Xous avons dix ans, I am twenty. We are ten. 

C'est dix heures, It is ten. 

II est dix heures moins dix (1232), It is ten minutes before ten. 

The preceding rule will be found to have but few exceptions, un- 
less the ellipsis be ambiguous (505 bis). 

A l'heure du berger is an idiomatic expression meaning at the ap- 
pointed time. 

Piece, in French, answers to apartment, in English. Appartement 
corresponds with lodging. Hote means host and guest. 

Nous avons un bel appartement, We have a beautiful lodging. 

Ceci est une grande piece ou chambre, This is a large room or apartment. 

Chambre-a-coucher is a bedroom; Chambre-des-d6putes, lower 
chamber ; chambre-noire, a camera obscura; chambre etoilee, star- 
chamber ; grand'-salle (438), large hall. Sale answers to dirty. 

Place, endroit, answers to place or room, in English. The first 
may correspond, in English, with square, fortified toicn, or situation 
in life. 

Xous sommes sur la place Vendome, We are on Yendome square. 
Strasbourg est une place forte, Strasbourg is a fortified toicn. 

Ce comniis a perdu sa place, Thai clerk has lost his situation. 

Reputation, in French, corresponds with character, or reputation, 
in English. Caractere, with temper. 

Cet honinie jouit d'une bonne reputa- That man enjoys a good character. 

tion, 

Cette fenime a un maurais caractere, That woman has a bad temper. 

Ce caractere n'est pas de mon gout, That temper is not to my liking. 



1184. Complements of substantives in French, contrary to Eng- 
lish construction, followed by the preposition de or a, are always 
placed after the words which they determine (303, 304, 864). 



Une maison de commerce, 
Un maitre-d'armes, 
La maison de mon pere, 
Une montre d'or, 
Un moulin-a-vent, 



A commercial house or firm. 
A fencing-master. 
My father's house. 
A gold icatch. 
A windmill. 



"Remark. — Monsieur, madame, sir, madam, are words never used 
in French by children with reference to their father or mother. 



COINCIDENCES AND DISSIDENCES, ETC. 543 

Parents sometimes use them to their children Jo express dissatisfac- 
tion. 

Monsieur Charles, je suis tres-mecon- Master Cliarles, I am much displeased 
tent de vous? with you. 

In French, the compound words madame, monsieur, mademoiselle, 
are placed before social titles or words expressing relationship: 
Madame is never used for unmarried ladies, except in high composi- 
tion (1121). 

Comment se portent M. votre pere et How are your father and mother? 

Me. votre mere? 
Connaissez-vous M. le president? Are you acquainted with the president? 

Monsieur, in French, is not used by soldiers in referring to their 
superior officers. 

Mon gSniral, mon colonel, mon capitaine, are addresses from inferior 
to superior grades. According to this distinction, speaking of mili- 
tary men, civilians will say : Monsieur le gSne'ral, etc. 

Expressing all the hair of the head, the substantive cheveu, in 
French, is always used in the plural. When unity is to be expressed, 
it takes the singular. 

Les cheveux de cette femme sont noirs, The hair of that woman is black. 
Cette soie est aussi fine qu'un cheveu, That silk is as fine as a hair. 

Used indeterminately, preceded by the preposition a, the substan- 
tive raison requires indirect objects, answering to the English ex- 
pressions at the rate, at the price, either expressed or understood. 

J'ai vendu ces objets a raison de trois I sold those things at the rate of three 

dollars, dollars. 

lis les ont tous vendu un franc piece, They sold them all at a franc each. 

With the active verbs savoir, apprendre, connaitre, comprendre, as 
shown in the following examples, adjectives of nation are used sub- 
stantively in French (330).* 

H apprend, il 6tudie Vanglais, He learns, he studies English. 

Le francais est une belle langue (427), French is a fine language. 
Nous savons le francais, We know French. 

Adjectives of nation are used in both languages with the verbs 
ttre, parler, paraitre, semoler, devenir, etc (1186). 



* For confusion of principles, see FasquehVs Method, page 97-1, 2, 3, 4. 



544 GRAMMAR. 

Ce monsieur parait itali^p, That gentleman seems to be an Italian. 

Mon frere parle allemana, My brother speaks German. 

Nous sommes franeais, et vous etes We are French, and you are English. 
anglais, 

To express professions, social grades, positions in life, or names of 
things, the French use adjectives, while indefinite substantives are 
used in English. 

Totre ami est mauvais medecin, Tour friend is a bad physician. l 

Zaire, tragedie de Voltaire, Zaire, a tragedy of Voltaire. 

Mon pere est avocat, le rotre est My father is a lawyer, yours a military 

militaire, man. 

"When sentences are indeterminate, indefinite in English, whether 
the substantives used in them be qualified or not by adjectives, in 
both languages the numeral adjective un, line, answering to a, an, i3 
employed. 

Totre ami est un bon medecin, Your friend is a good physician. 

M. Josse est un orfevre, Mr. Josse is a goldsmith. 

Mon frere est un bon avocat, et le My brother is a good lawyer, yours a 
votre est un legiste, legist. 

In determinate cases, definite in English, in accordance with the 
general rule (535), qualified or unqualified substantives take the de- 
terminate article. 

Votre ami est le brave qui a vaincu Your friend is the brave man who sub- 
son ennemi, dued his foe. 

Son frere est l'habile medecin qui l'a His brother is the skilful physician 

gueri, icho cured him. 

La bonne mere des pauvres, She is the good mother of the poor. 

Though preceded by the forms of the determinate article, adjec- 
tives are not used substantively when they qualify a noun under- 
stood.* 

Separons le mauvais d'avee le bon Let us pari the good from the lad grain. 
grain, 

Here, le mauvais qualifies the substantive grain, understood in that 
elliptical proposition. 

For false theories and confusion of principles, see Fasquelle's 
Method, page 97-4. 

Remark. — Before nouns expressing iceiglds, measures, or quan- 
tities, the determinate article is used in French, where the indeter- 
minate forms a, an, are used in English. 

* For erroneous theories, see Fasquelle's Method, page 57, lesson 15-8. 



COINCIDENCES AND DISSIDENCES, ETC. 545 

Le vin vaut dix sous la bouteille, Wine is worth ten cents a bottle. 

Les chasselas se vendent dix sous le Fontainebleau grapes sell at ten cents a 

panier, basket. 

Le pain coilte quatre sous la livre, Bread is worth four cents a pound. 

Except first and second, cardinal adjectives are used in French to 
denote the order of sovereigns, where ordinal adjectives are used in 
English (927). 

Vous avez Thistoire de Henri quatre, You have the history of Henry the 
mais vous n'avez pas celle de fourth, b ut have not that of Heninj 

Henri second, the second. 

These sentences are elliptical, answering to the fourth king, where 
the cardinal number quatre stands for quatrihne in the French sen- 
tence. Their meaning is: "Vous avez Phistoire de Henri quatrieme 
roi de France, mais vous n'avez pas celle de Henri le deuxieme roi." 

As in English, to denote rank of things, ordinal adjectives are used 
in French before determinate nouns. 

Le livre quatrieme, ou le quatrieme The fourth booh. 

livre, 

La sixieme page de l'Eneide, The sixth page of the Eneid. 

Le premier volume de Plutarque, The first volume of Plutarch. 

"Vfith. first and second placed before indeterminate nouns, French 
and- English use ordinal adjectives. 

Livre premier, second volume, First book, second volume. 

Beyond those numbers, cardinal adjectives are used in French, 
when ordinal are used also in English (585). 

Chapitre dix, verset quatre, Chapter tenth, verse fourth. 

The desire for conciseness, clearness, harmony, leads to such trans- 
positions and omissions of words. In the foregoing examples dix, 
quatre, are used in the meaning of dixihne, quatrieme. 

Answering to cinquieme, fifth, the obsolete word quint is always 
used with reference to the Emperor Charles the Fifth and Pope 
Sixtus the Fifth. In these exceptional cases, quint answers to cinq. 
Quine, in lottery parlance, answers to a series of five numbers. 

Sexagenaire, septuag6naire, octogenaire, answer to sixty, seventy, 
eighty years old. * 

Siecle corresponds with age^century. 

Le siecle de Louis-quatorze, In the age of Louis the Fourteenth. 

Pendant le douzieme siecle, During the twelfth century. 

Le iiecle d'or, The golden age. 



546 GRAMMAR. 



Double Acceptation of some Substantives. 

1185. To prevent error and confusion, the following substantives 
require the notice of learners. 

Susceptible of different acceptations, answering to the world, le 
monde, when used in a restricted sense, means people. Contrary to 
English practice, le monde in this acceptation governs verbs in the 
singular. 

Le monde est beau et admirable, The world is handsome, admirable. 

Nous aurons beaucoup de monde chez- We will have many people at our house, 
nous, 

Preceded by the qualifying adjectives grand, beau, monde has 
different meanings. ^ 

II fr£quente le grand-monde, He frequents high society. 

Nous ne voyons que du beau-monde, We see only fashionable people. 

Used in the plural number, monde means the universe. 

Les mondes qui roulent dans Pespace The worlds which roll in space are the 
sont Toeuvre de Dieu, work of God. 

To designate the meat or the animals, the same words are used in 
French with different significations. , 



Accordingly, 



Boeuf, 

Veau, 

Mouton, answer to 

Cochon, 

Vache, 



Ox or beef. 
Calf or veal. 
Sheep or mutton. 
Hog or pork. 
Cow or beef. 



In French, pork refers always to salted or cured pork. 
Argent answers to both silver and money, in English. Monnaie, in 
French, corresponds with change. 

Une montre d' argent, A silver watch. 

Une bourse pleine d'argent, A purse filled with silver. 

Rendez-moi la monnaie qui me revient, Return me the change due. 

Kendre la monnaie de la piece, signifies to retaliate. 

Argen1>long, in French, means money difficult of collection. Mau- 
vais argent, bad pay. 

Argent-vif is quicksilver. 

Bourse answers to purse, in English. Referring to peculiar places 
of meeting for the transaction of business, it corresponds with ex- 
change. 

Ce negociant est a la bourse, That merchant has gone to the exchange. 

Ma bourse est vide, My purse is empty. 



DOUBLE ACCEPTATION OF SOME SUBSTANTIVES. 547 

Monture, with reference to animals of burden, means a frame, a 
case, with its other uses. 

J'ai une bonne monture avec ce cheval, Mine is a good horse, 

Cette monture de bague n'est pas d'or, That ring is not gold. 

Les montures de ces lunettes sont de The frames of those spectacles are 
cuivre argente (1093), silvered copper. 

Jour, in French, may answer either to day or to light, in English. 

Dans deux jours ce sera la Noel (1233), In two days it will be Christmas. 

Est-ce jour ou nuit? Is it daylight or night? 

Le jour commence a poindre, Light begins, or it is break of day. 

In the first example, jour answers to a division of time of twenty- 
four hours. In the others it means light. 

Used in the singular or plural, jour may in some cases signify in 
English life, to be born. 

On menace ses jours, They threaten his life. 

II doit le jour a des parents honnetes, He is born of honest parents. 

Heure, corresponding with moment, in French, answers to hour, 
time, o y clock, in English. 

Quelle heure est-il ? C'est dix heures, What o'clock is it ? It is ten. 

II y a deux heures que je travaille, I have been working these two hours. 

Ce malade est a sa derniere heure, That sick man is at his last moment. 

Heure, answering to o y clock, cannot be understood in French (505 

bis). 

II est quatre heures, It is four. 

Midi, mjnuit, correspond with noon, midnight. 

II est midi. II sera minuit, It is noon. It will be midnight. 

Douze heures, in French, without reference to diurnal divisions as 
in English, simply indicates an interval of twelve hours. 

Nous travaillames douze heures, We worked for twelve hours. 

Remark. — Used indeterminately, midi, noon, rejects the article 
unless preceded by the preposition sur, answering to toioards, near, 
or when used to signify the south (427). 

Venez-me trouver sur le midi, Come meet me about noon. 

Le midi de la France est un delicieux The south of France is a delicious 

climat, climate. 

II n'est pas midi, It is not noon. 

Connaissance has two different meanings ; besides acquaintance, it 
corresponds with mental acquisition, knowledge, in English. In this 
acceptation it is used generally in the plural. 

47 



548 GRAMMAR. 

Nos connaissances dans la ville sont Our acquaintances in town are vei'y 

tres-nombreuses, numerous. 

Vos connaissances en m£decine sont Your knowledge of physic is very 

tres-bornees, limited. 

Here, dans la ville, en me'decine, are the complements which deter- 
mine the different meanings of connaissance. 

Remark. — Connaissance answering to knowledge is used in the 
plural in the French sentence, while it remains in the singular in 
English. 

Tour answers to tower, trick, or turn. In the first of these accept- 
ations it is feminine ; masculine in the other two. 

La tour de ce vieux castel tombe en The tower of that old castle is falling 

ruine, into ruins. 

Vous m'avez joue un mauvais tour, You played me a bad trick. 

Faisons un ou deux tours de jardin, Let us take a turn or two around the 

garden. 

Remark. — Originally inflected in el, many French words now end 
in au. Such are : 

(Castel, C Chateau, ( Castle. 

Martel, w ^ w - J Marteau, n „ amM : n „ ^ J Hammer. 

Capel, New form : 1 Chapeau, answering to j HaU 

Mantel, (^Manteau, {Mantle. 

In the different idioms of the southern provinces of France,, the 
above words retain the old inflexion. 

Speaking of animals, entrailles corresponds with entrails, bowels. 
Figuratively, it answers to the heart, the bosom. 

Vous avez toujours eu pour moi des You always had for me a paternal 
entrailles de pere, heart. 

Lecture, in French, answers to reading. Cours corresponds with 
lecture in English. 

Je fais un cours d'histoire, I am giving lectures on history. 

Nous faisons une lecture d'histoire, We are reading history. 

Vous suiyez un cours d'histoire, We are taking a course of lessons on 

history. 

Pour l'amour de Dieu, answers to for God's sake, or for mercy's 
sake. 
Secourez-le pour ram our de Dieu, Help him for mercy's sake. 

Mur, muraille, answer to wall, in English. The first is masculine, 
the last feminine (434). 

Ce mur ou cette muraille va tomber, That wall is going to fall. 



DOUBLE ACCEPTATION OF SOME SUBSTANTIVES. 549 

Mur with the circumflex accent answers to ripe. Sur with the 
same sign is sour or sure. 

Poele answers to pall, stove, or frying-pan. In the first two signi- 
fications it is masculine, in the last feminine. 

Quatre princes tenaient un coin du Four princes were the pall-bearers. 

poele, 
La servante tenait la poele, The maid held the frying-pan. 

Le poele etait ehauffe a rouge, The stove was red-hot. 

Biere means beer or coffin. 

Mettez la biere en bouteilles, Bottle up the beer. 

Placez ce mort dans sa biere, Lay that corpse in its coffin. 

Cercueil may take the place of bfere when the latter means coffin, 
Gagne-pain, answering to 7neans of existence, is employed with 

reference to persons or things. 

In French, the substantive pain has two meanings. It may refer 

to substance or shape, answering to bread or loaf according to its 

employment. 

Ce pain est bon et bien cuit, That bread is good and well baked. 

Ce pain-de-sucre est tres-blanc, That sugar-loaf is very white. 

To express loaf of bread, the French use miche de pain. 

Chaque soldat recut une miche de pain Each soldier received a loaf of bread 
et une livre de viande, and a pound of meat. 

When referring to the singing of birds, ramage answers to chirping. 
Speaking of printed stuffs or brocades, it corresponds with designs, 
patterns. 

Entendez (1107) le doux ramage du Hear the sweet singing of the nightin- 

rossignol, gale. 

Cette robe-de-ehambre a grands That large-patterned morning gown 

ramages ne me plait aucunement, does not suit my taste. 

With reference to horses, manage answers to riding-school. It 
corresponds with artful manners, tricks, artifices, when connected 
with persons (431). 

Ce manege est vaste et tres-bien That riding-school is large and well 

montS, supplied. 

Je n'aime ni ces gens nileurs maneges, I dislike those people and their manners. 

When used substantively, Romaine answers to scale, or Roman 
lady. 

Cette romaine nous sert a peser nos TJiat scale we use for weighing our 

marchandises. goods. 

Clelie etait une (330) Romaine, CleHa was a Roman lady. 



550 GRAMMAR. 

Romanesque, romantic, is said of persons; romantique, with tho 
same meaning, is used in reference to things. 

Assurance answers to assurance or insurance, in English. 

Cet homme a beaucoup d'assurance, That man has a great deal of assurance. 
1/ assurance de cette maison est bonne, The insurance on that house is good. 

The substantive heure, we have already said, answers to time (811). 
A cette heure ils sont arrives, They have arrived by this time. 

The French expression point-du-jour answers to break of day, in 
English. 

In the singular, gage means pledge or token, in the plural, salary. 

Voici un gage de mon auntie", Here is a pledge of my friendship, 

«Fai paye les gages de mes valets, I paid the wages of my grooms. 

Referring to fencing, botte answers to hit, thrust. When used in 
reference to hay or straw, it means bundle. 

II n'a pu parer cette botte, He could not parry that thrust. 

Je porte des bottes neuves, / wear new boots. 

Donnez une botte de foin au cheval, Give a bundle of hay to the horse. 

Idiomatically, parer une botte is to ward off evil. 
The adjectives morveux, morveuse, are employed substantively 
(330) in French, with the meaning of brats. 

Prendrons-nous a la promenade ce Shall we take with us on our walk these 
petit morveux et cette petite mor- little brats ? 

veuse ? 

Bambins, marmots, moutard, gamin, have the same meaning ; the 
last three words are used only for boys. Mioche with the significa- 
tion of child is too vulgar for general practice. 

Often misspelled by English writers, enceinte answers to enclosure 
or state of pregnancy. 

Cette enceinte est vaste, This is a vast enclosure. 

Cette femme est enceinte, That woman is pregnant, 

Toupet, a tuft of hair, is used figuratively for assurance, brazen 

face. 

Ce monsieur porte un toupet, That gentleman wears false hair. 

Ce jeune-homme a du toupet, That young man has assurance. 

Perruque answers to wig; perruquier, to wig-maker; coiffeur, to 
hair-dresser. 

Vieille-perruque answers idiomatically to old fogy. 

Memoire, used in the masculine gender, answers to bill, account, 
in the feminine, to memory. 



DOUBLE ACCEPTATION OF SOME SUBSTANTIVES. 551 

Jatte means large bowl; cul-de-jatte, a person unable to walk. Une 
mauvaise langue, used for both genders, answers to a backbiter. 

Garc,on answers to boy and to waiter; vieux garqon, to old bachelor. 

Barbe means beard, or Barbary horse. In the first acceptation it 
is feminine ; in the last, masculine. 

Ce vieillard a une longue barbe, That old man has a long beard. 

Ce barbe est un bon trotteur, That Barbary horse is a good trotter. 

Remark. — With the verb porter, to wear, in either French or Eng- 
lish, we might say: 

Ce vieillard porte une longue barbe That old man wears a long beard. 
(1066), 

Masculine, livre answers to book. Feminine, a pound, either weight 
or money. 

J'achete un livre pour lire, I purchase a book for reading. 

Nous vendons une livre de sucre, We sell a pound of sugar. 

J'ai une livre sterling, une livre tour- i" have a pound sterling, a French 
nois, pound. 

Sabot, a wooden shoe, referring to horses, answers to hoof. 

Son fils porte des sabots, His son wears wooden shoes. 

Ce cheval a le sabot plat, That horse has flat hoofs. 

Cheveu, singular; cheveux, plural, answer to the hair of the head; 

Poil, singular ; poils, plural, the hair of the face. Unlike the word 

cheveu, poil may be used in the singular to express the vJiole hair of 

the face (1184). 

* 
Le poil de sa barbe est noir, The hair of his beard is black. 

Cet homme a les cheveux crepus, That man has woolly hair. 

Menton answers to chin. 

Cette vieille a un menton de galoche, That old xcoman has a prominent chin. 

Allusion is here made to the resemblance between the old woman's 
chin and the toe of a galoche, the ancient wooden-soled shoe worn by 
the Gauls, at present only used in winter. 

Souris, masculine, answers to smile; feminine it means mouse. 
Chauve-souris is a bat. 

Cet bomnie a le souris malin, That man has a wicked smile. 

Entendant du bruit, la souris s'esquiva, Hearing some noise, the mouse ran away. 

Relating to short missives, billet answers to a card. Referring to 

obligations or engagements to pay money, it answers to note. In 

French, note means annotation, memorandum, or a mark. 

47* 



00 % 2 t GRAMMAR. 

Nous recunies un billet de cette dame, We received a card from that lady. 

Dans un mois je vous paierai mon In a month I will pay you my note. 

billet, 

Ces notes sont claires, Those annotations are clear. 

Croque-note is an idiomatic expression signifying a good reader of 

music. 

* 

Beau-diseur, a great talker; croque-mort, an undertaker. 
Eeferring to rights of admission to places of amusement or to 
lotteries, billet answers to ticket. 

Avez-vous un billet de spectacle ou de Is it a theatre-ticket or a lottery -ticket 
loterie ? that you have ? 

Lunette answers to spy-glass; lunettes, plural, to spectacles. In 
French, spectacle in the singular means theatre. 

The compound substantive sage-femme answers to midivife. Ac- 
coucheuse is used with the same meaning. Accoucheur, said of male 
practicians, corresponds to man-midwife. 

Voiture is used for cart or carriage. Equipage is used in the same 
way, answering to town carriage, or cart for transporting goods. 

Nous irons en voiture, We will go in a carriage. 

Cet equipage (de ville) est elegant, That town-carriage is splendid. 

Cet Equipage (de roulage) est lourde- That cart is heavily loaded. 
ment charge, 

In French, charrette always has the meaning of cart, in English. 
With reference to prices for transporting goods, voiture answers to 
freight, or cost of transportation; frU, in French, refers always to 
wafer-transportation. 

Remark. — Lettre-de-voiture answers to bill of lading, when land- 
transportation is meant. 

Connaissement, with the same meaning, refers to transportation 
by sea. 

Nous avons paye la voiture du ble, We paid the freight of the wheat. 

Avez-vous paye le fret de Tavoine? Have you paid the freight of the oats? 

Quelle est la voiture d'ici a New-York? What is the freight from here to New 

York? 

The last example is elliptical. It stands for quel est leprix de la 
voiture, etc. 

Amende, a fine, must not be confounded with amande, almond. 
These two words have the same sounds, though spelled differently. 

Mine may answer to countenance or to mine. 

Cet enfant fait la mine, That child looks cross. 

T/ennemi a fait jouer une mine, The enemy sprung a mine. 



DOUBLE ACCEPTATION OF SOME SUBSTANTIVES. 553 

In Normandy, fieu answers to fils, son. Although not properly 
French, such words may be found in writing or conversation as cha- 
racteristics of local expressions. 

With a circumflex accent on a, chasse, limiting, answers to frame, 
or reliquary. Echasses, used generally in the plural, signifies stilts, 
in English. 

Allons-nous a. la chasse? Shall ice go hunting ? 

La chasse de St. Roch a produit des The reliquary of St. Bock (958) has 

miracles etonnants, wrought astonishing miracles. 

II est inonte sur des echasses, He stands upon stilts. 

Maison answers to house, firm, dynasty, or prominent family. 

i 

Ceci est ma maison, TJiis is my house. 

Voila une bonne maison-de-commerce, That is a good commercial Jinn. 

La maison des Bourbons, The Bourbon dynasty. 

La maison de Guise, de Montmorenci, The family of Guise, of Montmorency. 

In the above acceptation, it is used only with reference to histori- 
cal names. In all other cases, use the yroT&famille (519). 

Malheureux, unfortunate, must not be confounded with miserable, 
answering to wretch. The first implies pity; the last, contempt. 

Eau-fraiche answers to cool ivater, in English ; eau douce, fresh 
water; eau salee, brine. 

Etable is a stable for oxen, cows, or sheep. Ecurie is a stable for 
horses. 

Brebis, ewe, like sheep in English, has but one form for the two 
numbers (273). 

Taureau answers to a bull. When used in speaking of men, it 
implies great strength and nerve. 

Cet homme est un taureau, That man is as strong as a bull. 

Loge-a-cochons means a pig-pen. Bauge is the abode of loild boars. 

Taniere answers to the retreat of wild beasts. Abri, asile. are used 
with reference to man. 

The corresponding French word for the English female, femelle, is 
used only in speaking contemptuously of women of the lowest order, 
or of animals. Speaking of boys or girls, therefore, we will say: 

Cet enfant est du sexe masculin, That is a male child. 

Cette enfant est du sexe fSminin (511), That is a female child' 
Les dames etaient en grand nombre, Females were numerous. 

Remark. — Male, in French, may be used with reference to boys. 

Nou? n'avons en que des enfants males. We hnd nothing hut boy*. 



554 GRAMMAR. ^ 

But speaking of girls, instead of using the word femelle, we should 
say: 

Nous n'axons eu que des filles, ire had only girls. 

D'un cote" et de Fautre answers to on both sides. 

Homniasse, virago, are terms applied to females haying the gait or 
manners of men. 

Femmelette, on the contrary, is used to express effeminacy in men. 

Soldate is a soldie7*'s wife. Soldatesque answers to soldierly. 

Matin, in French, signifies morning, or, with the circumflex on a t 
mastiff (908). Matin answering to morning cannot be used, as in 
English, for early greetings. In such cases the French use the word 
jour, day, 

Le matin est frais, ou la matinee est The morning is cool. 

fraiche, 

Bon jour, Monsieur, Good morning, sir. 

Ce matin aboie a tout le monde. That mastiff barks at everybody. 

Therefore, never say : bon matin, monsieur, when an early greet- 
ing is meant. 

Referring to persons, preceded by the qualifier bon, m&tin answers 
to a brave fellow. 

Ce garcon-la est un bon matin, That lad is a brave felloic. 

Pretendu, pretendue, we have said above, are used with reference 
to betrothed people (1137 bis). 

In French, aiguille answers to needle. Referring to time-pieces 
or compasses, it corresponds to hand. 

J'ai de bonnes aiguilles anglaises, I have good English needles. 

La gran de aiguille de ma niontre est Tlie minute-hand of my watch is broken. 

cassee, 

1/ aiguille de la boussole varie, The hand of the compass varies. 

Remark. — It is a general practice in French, to prevent ambiguity 
in meaning, to use the word aiguille with complements limiting its 
signification (303, 1183). 

J'ai de bonnes aiguilles a coudre, / have good seicing-needles. 

Les aiguilles de ma montre sont The hands of my watch are of steel. 

cfacier, 
L'aiguille dn Gompas est derang€e, The hand of the compass is out of 

order. 

Remark. — 1st. Diranger is used either for persons or things. With 
reference to persons it answers to dissipated or deranged ; connected 
with things, it means out of order. 



DOUBLE ACCEPTATION OF SOME SUBSTANTIVES. 555 

Cet homme est derange, I man is deranged, or dissipated. 

Votre montre est derangee, Your watch is out of order. 

2d. In the foregoing examples, d refers to the use made of objects 
(864). _ 

Aiguillon means a goad ; aiguillonner, to goad or incite. 

Avez-vous pris F aiguillon ? Did you take the goad 1 

Aiguillonnez ce bceuf paresseux, Goad that lazy ox. 

II est aiguillonne par Famour de Far- He is incited by the love of money. 
gent, 

f 
Peau answers to skin, peel, or rind, etc. We say in French : 

La peau des animaux, de l'homme, The skin of animals, of man. 

La peru d'une orange, d'une pomme, The peel or rind of an orange, of an 

apple. 

Pied answers to foot, a part of the human body, or a measure, as 
in English. The same word may answer to stock or plant. 

Un pied de vigne, de laitue, -4. stock of vine, a plant of lettuce. 

Guir, in its proper acceptation, signifies leather. Idiomatically it 
means fault of language, caused by the use of superfluous letters in 
words (976), or the faulty connections of final consonants with vowels 
beginning other words. 

Une pendule answers to a time-piece; un pendule, a pendulum, 
an instrument to mark the intervals of time. 

Cloche, a bell, may correspond to Mister, in English. 

Les piqures de moucherons forment des The bites of mosquitos raise blisters on 
cloches sur mes mains, my hands. 

Clochette is a small bell; sonnette. a hand-bell. 

Croute, with reference to bread, cheese, etc., answers to crust; it 
signifies scab when sofes are spoken of. 

Cite in French answers to city in English. Referring only to the 
community of citizens having the same rights and laws, it is never 
used in the meaning of town. 

Savoir du fil a l'aiguille means to know a thing perfectly. 

Donner du fil a retordre is to occasion trouble, difficulties. 

En decoudre, said^of persons, means to speak against them. It 
requires the preposition contre. 

H en decoudra contre yous, He will abuse you. 

Answering to guilt, fault, mistake, followed by indirect comple- 
ments, either substantives or infinitives, faute answers to the English 
expression for want of. 



556 GRAMMAR. 

lis souffrirent faute de pain, faute They suffered for want of bread, for 

d'argent, want of money. 

II n'a pas reussi, faute d'agir, He did not succeed, for want of action. 

The last expression might be used in a determinate sense, answer- 
ing to le defaut, the want. 

Le defaut d'argent les a fait partir The want of money caused their de- 

(792), parture. 

Le defaut de courage causa leur de- Tfie want of courage caused their de- 

faite. feat. 

Le defaut d'union perdit cette repub- The want of uyion ruined that re- 

lique, public. 

Faire faute, used indeterminately, means to ?7ii$s somebody or 
something. 

Faire des fautes is to commit faults. Faire un peche is to sin. 

Faute de quoi is an adverbial expression, answering to unless, or 
for want of. 

The substantives cartel, duel, are not subject to rule 291; they 
take s in the plural. 

Pompe has three acceptations in French. It answers to splendor, 
fire-engine, or sUam-engine. 

La pompe royale, les pompes funebres, Kingly splendor, funeral pageantry. 
La pompe-a-incendie, The fire-engine. 

La pompe -a-feu, The steam-engine. 

Answering to fireman in English, pompier may also idiomatically 
correspond to the English sucker or drinker, generally expressed in 
French by the word soulard. 

Faire jouer les pompes is to set tlie engines in motion. 

The foregoing examples, with many others which might be given, 
show that the exact meaning of words depends chiefly upon com- 
plements developing our ideas. 

Ane. donkey, said of persons, is synonymous in French with 
ignoramus. 
Cet honime est un ane, That man is an ignoramus. 

Le pont-aux-anes answers to the expression to do things in the 
ion way. * 

En traitant cette question, ces savants In their treatment of that question, those 
ont suivi le pont-aux-anes, scholars have followed the beaten 

track. 

Derivative of the Latin word a-sinus. ane has dropped the 5 and 
taken the circumflex accent (434) on a. It was formerly spelled asne. 
Anon is used with reference to the foal of the ass. 



USE OF THE ARTICLE IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 007 

Poulain, masculine, pouliche, feminine, correspond to colt and 
jilly. 

Poulaine answers to the figure-head of a vessel, or to the toe-part 
of certain ancient shoes. 

Favori corresponds with favorite or whiskers. Moustache is the 
hair of the upper lip. 

The word diable is often idiomatically used in French in cases 
where the use of the corresponding word devil would be very impro- 
per in English. Associated with qualifiers, it varies in signification, 
but never means the prince of darkness, as in English, except when 
speaking directly of Satan or of an evil spirit. 

Diable que e'est chaud ! Zounds ! or my ! how hot it is ! 

Ce pauvre-diable est bien malade, That poor fellow is very sick. 

Apres tout e'etait un bon-diable, After all, he was a good fellow. 

Faire le diable-a-quatre is to romp about, to play. Speaking of a 
child, e'est un diable incarne answers to he is a very mischievous 
fellow. 

Eemark. — Pucelle, maid, is not used in French as it is in English. 
A young maid, an old maid, must be translated une jeune fille, une 
vieille fille. 

We might give many additional examples of words which in 
French are used familiarly, but in English are not allowable in 
polite conversation: the above, however, are sufficient. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVENTH. 

Use of the Article in the Two Languages. 

1186. The article, we have already seen, is used before common 
substantives to show when those words have a determinate or par- 
titive signification (307, 536).* 

According to this general principle, every common substantive in 
English having a determinate or partitive signification must be pre- 
ceded in French by one form of the article. 

* When partitive, those forms are combined or contracted with the preposi- 
tion de. Ex. : du, des, de le, de la, etc. (537). 



558 ■ GRAMMAR. 

L'homine est une creature raisonnable, Man is a reasonable creature. 

La feniine est la compagne de l'homnie, Woman is the companion of man. 

La terre uourrit Fhoinnie de ses fruits, The earth nourishes man icith its fruits. 

Here, the complements 

Une creature raisonnable, A reasonable creature, 

La compagne de Thc-ruine, The companion of man, 

Nourrit Phc-mme de ses fruits, Nourishes man with its fruits, 

limiting the signification of the common substantives Jiomme, femme, 
terre, must be preceded by the forms of the determinate article. 

The forms of the determinate article must be used (305 and follow- 
ing) : 

1st. In connection with names of nations, tribes, sects, political 
parties, professions, etc. (309). 

Les Francais, les Anglais, les Espa- French, English, Spaniards, Greeks. 

gnols, les Grrecs, 

Les catholiques-roniains, les protes- Roman Catholics, Protestants. 

tants, 

Les republicains, les democrates, les Republicans, democrats, royalists. 

rovalistes, 

Les Arabes, les Esquimaux, les negres, The Arabs, the Esquimaux, the Negroes. 

Such common substantives are generally followed by comple- 
ments, as shown in the following examples : 

Les Francais sont vifs et amoureux The French are lively, and fond of the 

du beau. beautiful. 

Les Espagnols sont tiers et taciturnes, The Spanish are proud and taciturn. 

Les Arabes sont mahometans, The Arabs are Mohammedans. 

2d. "With names representing divisions of the earth, either in con- 
tinents, empires, kingdoms, states, provinces, and with names of 
days used determinately. 

L'Europe, l'Asie, la Polynesie, la Europe, Asia, Polynesia, Corsica, Si- 
Corse, la Sicile, la France, PAn- cily, France, England, Pennsylva- 
gleterre, la Pennsylvania la Loui- nia, Louisiana ; Monday, Thurs- 
siane : les lundis, les jeudis, day. 

Remark. — The names of certain countries of the masculine gen- 
der, complements of the verbs venir, revenir, aller, retourner, require 
the contracted form of the article du, au, or the determinate article 
blended with the preposition de. 

Je viens du Mexique, de Tarchipel de I come from Mexico, from the Grecian 

Grece, Archipelago. 

Nous allons au Japon, au Perou, We are going to Japan, to Peru. 

Where the above verbs have feminine nouns for complements, 
aller requires the preposition en, the others the preposition de,from* 



* For erroneous theories, see Pujol and Van Norman, p. 128-2, remark. 



USE OF THE DETERMINATE ARTICLE, ETC. 559 

Nous allons en France, en Chine, We are going to France, to China. 

Nous venous de France, d'Angleterre, We come from France, from England. 
Vous retournez de Russie, You return from Russia. 

3d. With the names of seas, gulfs, straits, etc. (310). 

I/Atlantique, le Pacifique, laMediter- The Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediter- 
ranee, TAdriatique, le golphe du ranean, the Adriatic, the Gulf of 

Mexique, Mexico. 

L'Atlantique s6pare l'Europe de The Atlantic separates Europe from 

TAmerique, America. 

Le golphe du Mexique est en Ameri- The Gulf of Mexico is in America, 

que, 

4th. With the names of mountains, rivers, deserts, etc. ; and with 
possessive pronouns, which words always have determinate signifi- 
cations (381). 

Les Alpes, les Pyrenees, le Nil, le The Alps, the Pyrenees, the Nile, the 

Sahara, Sahara. 

Le mien, le tien, le sien, Mine, thine, his. 

Les Alpes furent passees par Annibal, The Alps icere crossed by Hannibal. 
Le Nil fertilise l'Egypte, The Nile fertilizes Egypt. 

Le mien et le tien^sont diffe rents, Mine and thine are different. 

5th. With the names of cardinal points, winds, seasons (310). 

Le nord, le sud, Test, l'ouest, The north, south, east, and west. 

Le midi, le couchant, le levant, The south, west, east. 

L'ete, l'hiver, le printemps, etc., Summer, winter, spring, etc. 

Le nord est froid mais sain, The north is cold but healthy. 

Le midi abonde en produits, The south abounds in produce. 

L'ete est preferable a l'hiver, Summer is preferable to xcinter. 

Remark. — Though preceded by adjectives, nouns use the article 
when their signification is determined by the meaning. 

Nous sommes du meme avis, We are of the same opinion. 

Elles sont toutes trois de la me*me They are all three of the same opinion. 
opinion, 

6th. With the names of dignities used determinately before proper 
nouns (310). 

Le general Blucher commandait Far- General Blucher commanded the army. 

rn.ee, 
Le president Jackson est mort, President Jackson is dead. 

7th. With infinitives or adjectives used substantively (310, 330, 
694). 

Le boire et le manger sont necessaires, Drinking and eating are necessary. 
Le beau et Tutile seront toujours re- The beautiful and the useful icill always 
cherches et appreoi£s, be sought and valued. 



560 GRAMMAR. 

8th. With two adjectives qualifying different substantives, con- 
nected by the conjunction et (550). 

Lejeuneetle vieuxsoldatsont blesses, The young and the old soldier are 
y wounded. 

A 
9th. With adverbs standing in comparison, or used substantively 

(548). 

Votre sceur est la plus jolie d'entre Your sister is the prettiest of them. 

elles, * 
Son pere est le meilleur des peres, His (or her) father is the best of fathers. 

Le dessus de la table est bien uni, The upper part of the table is well 

polished. 

10th. Before partitive words, representing either parts of collec- 
tions of persons, or parts of things, the article is blended with 
the preposition de. 

II a des amis qui le cherissent (537), He has friends toho love him. 
N'avons-nous pas de F argent pour Have we not some money to pay you t 
vous payer ? 

Remark. — The names of certain cities and families have the 
article prefixed to them. 

Le Havre, la Rochelle, la Haie, la Havre, Rochelle, the Hague, La Mar~ 
Mar tine, tine. 

The forms of the determinate article are joined to the names of 
certain poets and distinguished artists. Such are: le Tasse, le 
Dante, PArioste, among poets ; le Guide, le Carrache, le Titien, le 
Veronese, le Perugin, le Poussin, among painters. 

Here there is ellipsis in French. 



Le Dante, } f Dante. 

L'Arioste, > stand for the poets called < Ariosto. 

Le Tasse, J ( Tasso. 



Le Veronese, "j ( Veronese. 

Le Guide, \ stand for the painters called X Guido. 

Le Poussin, J {Poussin. 

They are also used before proper nouns representing persons or 
things, when their signification is limited by complements. 

Le Napoleon d'autrefois, The Napoleon of yore. 

La Rome moderne, Modern Rome. 

The words d'autrefois, moderne, are complements limiting the 
substantives NapoUon, Rome. Having determinate significations, 
those substantives must be preceded by the forms of the determi- 
nate article (310). 



USE OF THE DETERMINATE ARTICLE, ETC. 561 

11S7. The determinate article agrees always in gender and 
number with the substantive which it precedes. 

I/aieul, l'aieule, The grandfather, the grandmother. 

In the first example I is masculine, in the second it is feminine 
(313). 

The only exceptions to this general rule are No. "521, when plural 
forms precede proper names, and 532, 590. 

Dropping of the Determinate Article. 

11S7 bis. The forms of the determinate article are not used in 
French : 

1st. With substantives having indeterminate significations. 

Un homme est verm, ime femme a A man came, a icoman spoke. 
parle, 

Before substantives used as complements of other substantives or 
verbs (538). 

L'homme de confiance, The confidential man. 

La robe de velours, The velvet gown. 

Nous arrivons GTAngleterre, ~\Ye come from England. 

With words of partitive meaning, preceded by qualifying adjec- 
tives (541). This is the only exception to the general rule (1186). 
Dormez-moi de bon pain, Give me some good bread. 

Remark. — We might say donnez-moi du ,bo?i pain. The meaning 
would then be determinate, reference being to the quality, not to the 
quantity. 

2d. With words of indeterminate signification, viz.: representing 
no particular persons or objects. In proverbial sayings, the forms 
of the determinate article are not generally used (541). 

Un homme, un pont de pierre, A man, a stone bridge. 

Contentement passe riehesse, Contentment is better than riches. 

3d. Before common substantives complements of collective nouns 
(543), or adverbs of quantity. 

Une C[uantite de monde, A quantity of people. 

Beaueoup d'hommes, Many men. 

Remark. — The adverb bien, answering to many, is an exception to 
the above rule (545). 

Bien des homines sont trompes par de Many men are deceived by false appear- 
fausses apparences, ances. 



562 GRAMMAR. 

4th. "With indeterminate substantives complements of active verbs 
conjugated negatively (547). 

Xous n'avons pas d'argent, We have no money. 

Vous n'avez pas d'amis, You have no friends. 

5th. Before common substantives, preceded by determinative ad- 
jectives (358, 358 bis). 

Ce chapeau, son cheval, leur maison, That hat, his or her horse, their hoise. 
Madame, mademoiselle, Jfadam, miss. 

Remark. — The compound substantive monsieur, sir, is an excep- 
tion to that rule. Determinately we may say : 

Les messieurs que vous connaissez, le monsieur qui doit vous payer. 

But we cannot say: la madame, la mademoiselle (368). 
6th. In sentences where rapidity of diction is to be strongly im- 
pressed (554). 

Hommes, femmes, enfants, tout fut Men, women, children, all were put to 
passe au fil de Tepee, the sword. 

7th. "With countries designated by the name of their capital or 
chief place. 

Kew-York, Xaples, Venise, New York, Naples, Venice. 

Ellipses oiVe'tat de New York, Vetat de Naples, lUtat de Venise. 

8th. Before the names of some islands used always with ellipsis, 
such as : Java, Cuba, St. Helene, St. Domingue, standing for : 
UMe de Java, Vile de Cuba, Vile de St. HiUne, VMe de St. Domingue. 

9th. Before the names of the months, of the days of the week', or 
any other names used indeterminately. 

Novembre, decembre et Janvier sont November, December, and January are 

des mois rigoureux, severe months. 

Venez-nous voir lundi ou mardi, Come and see us on Monday or Tuesday. 

Remark. — In such cases no prepositions are used in French. 
10th. Before adjectives qualifying the same substantive (551). 

Le jeune et brave soldat, The young and brave soldier. 

11th. In cases where possession would be equivocal, possessive 
adjectives must take the place of the determinate article (592). 

Je vois que sa joue enfle, I see his (or her) cheek swelling. 



USE OF THE DETERMINATE ARTICLE, ETC. 563 

12th. With numeral cardinal adjectives connected with names of 
persons or things (585), or ordinal used as complements. 

Louis douze, Henri huit, Louis Twelfth, Henry Eighth. 

Livre premier, chapitre quatre, First book, fourth chapter. 

Repetition of the Determinate Article in French. 

The article should be repeated : 

1st. Before every substantive of determinate signification (307). 

Le pere, la mere et la tante de ces The father, mother, and aunt of those 
enfants sont morts, children are dead. 

2d. With two adjectives qualifying different substantives. 

Le vieux et le jeune (511, 550) domes-' The old and the young servant have 
tique ont ete renvoyes, been dismissed. 

Determinate Adjective un, une. 

1188. The numeral adjective un, une, answering to a, an, is 
placed in both languages before nouns of indeterminate significa- 
tion: viz., referring vaguely to persons or things (318). 

Un homme est venu vous demander, A man called on you. 
Une maison a ete brulee, A house has been burned. 

1189. To express professions or to name things, adjectives are 
used in French where indeterminate substantives are used in English 
(1184). 

Son frere est militaire, His (or her) brother is a military man. 

Mahomet, tragedie de Voltaire, Mahomet, a tragedy of Voltaire. 

Vous etes Espagnol, You are a Spaniard. 

In sentences indeterminate in French, the forms of the numeral 
adjective un, une, are used. 

Son frere est un militaire distingu6, Her brother is a distinguished soldier. 

Mahomet est une des tragedies de Mahomet is one of the tragedies of Vol- 

Voltaire, taire. 

Vous etes un Espagnol distingue, You are a Spaniard of note. 

The article is not elided before the determinative adjectives un, 
onze, used substantively, or before the common substantive ouate 
(313). Therefore, we write and read: 

Le un (speaking of a figure) est bien The figure one is icell made. 

fait, 
Le onze du mois, la ouate est epaisse, The eleven of the month, etc. 

Remark. — In plural cases, s, in the forms les, des, is not joined with 
the vowels following. Accordingly : les un, les onze, les ouates, are 
sounded 16 un, 16 onze (590), 16 ouates. 

48* 



564 GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHTH. 

Qualifying Adjectives in the Two Languages. 

• 

1190. The syntax of the French adjective, we have already seen 
(555 ter), differs greatly from that of the English. Unless inflected, 
to express comparisons, adjectives, in English, might be classed 
among invariable words. Though no regular place can be assigned 
to adjectives in French, the following stand generally after the nouns 
they qualify (579). 

1st. Verbal adjectives, — viz., those derived from verbs (324). 

Un homine reconnaissant, A grateful man. 

Une lecon intcressante, An interesting lesson. 

Une mere cherie, A cherished mother. 

Un pain bien petri, A well-kneaded loaf. 

2d. Adjectives expressing physical sensations, mental or bodily 
defects, color, taste, form, or shape. 

Une pomme molle et douce au gout, A soft and sweet apple. 

Un enfant boiteux et aliened ■ A lame, crazy child. 

Un habit noir ou gris, A black or gray coat. 

Un chapeau rond ou tricorne, A round or cocked hat. 

Un fruit exquis, A delicious fruit. 

3d. Adjectives susceptible of being used substantively (330). 

Une femme malade, f la malade, A sick icoman, the sick icoman. 

Un homme riche, viz. < le riche, A rich man, the rich man. 

Un enfant mechant, ( le me chant, A wicked child, the wicked child. 

Remark. — It would be wrong to conclude from the foregoing rules 
that the adjectives given above as examples will always occupy the 
same place. In the course of practice, many exceptions will be 
found which will teach the proper use of those words better than 
rules devoid of generality. 

French adjectives, in poetry, sometimes occupy places which they 
could not in simple unpretending prose. 

Craignez les amorces trompeuses d'un vain plaisir, 

•is a sentence quite correct in construction. Yet by a simple inver- 
sion Boileau has produced this harmonious verse : 

Craignez d'un vain plaisir les trom- Dread the insidious allurements of vain 
pen gee amorces. plposprts. 



COMPLEMENTS OF ADJECTIVES, ETC. 



565 



In prose, trompeuses amorces would be pretentious, not to say 
worse. 

The place of qualif3<ing adjectives is determined entirely by 
euphony or harmony of sounds. 



1191* Adjectives changing signification according to the place 
they occupy. 



TJn bon-hom'me,* a simple artless man. 

Un petit-bonhomme, a good little boy. 

Une certaine affaire, a kind of affair. 

Un cher compagnon, a dear companion. 



Une commune pensSe, 
Un cruel homme, 
La derniere annee, 
Une fausse-clef, 
Un f'urieux-menteur, 
Un galant-homme, 
Un grand-capitaine, 
Le grand-air, 
Le haut-ton, 
Un honnete-homme. 
Une belle-femme, 
Un mal honnete- 
homme, 
Mauvais air, 
Mechant livre, 
Morte-saison, 
Un pauvre-homme, 
Un triste-homme, 
Un plaisant homme, 
Propres mains, 
Un seul enfant, 
Un simple officier, 
Un unique enfant, 
Ui^vilain homme, 
Un vrai conte, 



a unanimous thought, 
a tantalizing man. 
the last year of a series, 
a false or imitated key. 
a dreadful liar, 
a gentleman, 
a great captain, 
the open air. 
high fashion or style, 
an honesVman. 
a tall woman, 
a dishonest man. 

awkward look, 
worthless book, 
winter. 

a worthless man. 
a despicable man. 
a ridiculous man. 
own hands, 
a single child, 
a mere officer. 
a single child, 
a bad man. 
a mere tale. 



Un homme bon, 
Un homme petit, 
Une affaire certaine, 
Un compagnon cher, 

Une pensee commune. 
Un homme cruel, 
L'annee derniere, 
Une clef fausse, 
Un menteur furieux, 
Un homme gal ant, 
Un capitaine grand, 
L'air grand, 
Le ton haut, 
Un homme honnete, 
Une femme belle, 
Un homme malhon- 

nete, 
Air mauvais, 
Un livre mechant, 
Saison morte, 
Un homme pauvre, 
Un homme triste, 
Un homme plaisant, 
Mains propres, 
Un enfant seul, 
Un officier simple, 
Un enfant unique, 
Un homme vilain, 
Un conte vrai, 



a good man. 
a short man, or mean, 
a sure affair, 
an expensive com- 
panion. 
a vulgar thought, 
a cruel man. 
last year, 
a wrong key. 
a mad liar, 
a man polite to ladies, 
a tall captain, 
noble mien, 
a loud voice. 
a polite man. 
a handsome woman, 
an impolite man. 

a ivicked look, 
a caustic book. 
a season spent. 
a poor man. 
a low-spirited man. 
a joking man. 
clean hands, 
a child alone, 
a foolish officer. 
a matchless child, 
a sordid man. 
a serious tale. 



Complements of Adjectives. 

Two adjectives, provided they govern or require the same preposi- 
tion, may have the same complement (581). Therefore, adjectives 
having different complements must have appropriate prepositions. 

1192. Complements or objects of adjectives are words completing 
their signification by limiting it. 



Cct homme est digne de louange, 
Ce roi est indigne de regner, 



That man deserves praises. 

That king is unworthy to reign (885). 



Here, the preposition de connects the adjectives digne, indigne r 
with their complements louange, rigner. 



* Words joined by hyphens are compound substantives. 



566 GRAMMAR. 

1193. Complements are not always necessary to adjectives. It 

might be said : 

Cet homme est digne, That man is worthy. 

Ce roi est indigne, That king is unworthy. 

In French, adjectives may govern other prepositions than do their 
corresponding words in English. For instance, contented with, dis- 
pleased with, answer to content de, mecontent de, the English using 
with where the French use de, of. 

As rules respecting the choice of prepositions cannot be laid down 
for general cases, students are referred to practice. Tigd following 
rules will cover a few cases. 

1st. When the complement of an adjective is a verb preceded by 
ttre conjugated unipersonally without apparent nominative, if that 
verb is in the infinitive, the preposition de must connect it with the 
adjective (103). 
II est doux de mourir pour son pays, It is sweet to die for one's country. 

2d. If the complement of the adjective is a verb preceded by dire, 
conjugated with a subject, the preposition a is used to connect the 
adjective with the infinitive. 

Speaking of bread, we will say : 
II est bon d manger, It is good to eat. 

3d. When the verbs following the adjective are in the subjunctive 
mode, though eHre be conjugated unipersonally, no prepositions are 
needed. * 

II est bon que nous saohions cela, It is good for us to know that. 

Est-il sur que je sache ma lecon ? Is it certain that I know my lesson? 

Remark. — The preposition de does not depend on ttre (as inac- 
curately insinuated by Fasquelle's Method, p. 414-3, 4, 5) but on 
the verb regimen of the adjective which rejects prepositions in the 
subjunctive mode, or in the indicative when preceded by que. 
II est sur que je sais ma lecon (739). 

1194. For want of more certain rules on- this subject, we pre- 
sent the following examples, showing the different prepositions that 
the same adjectives may require. 

Absent par conge, absent Absent on leave, absent with- 

sans permission, absent pour out leave, absent on account of 

cause de sante, absent avec health, absent with permission, 

autorisation, absent pendant absent for a year, absent on pa- 

une annee, absent sur parole, role, absent against one's will, 

absent contre son gre, absent de absent from home, absent from 

la maison, absent de la ville, town, absent- minded. 
absent cf'esprit, 



ADJECTIVES GOVERNING DIFFERENT PREPOSITIONS. 567 



Ambitieux. 



Amoureux. 



Jaloux. 



lis sont ambitieux cfhon- 
neurs, de gloire, de richesses. 
Elles sont trop ainbitieuses 
dans leur humble position. 
Nous sommes ambitieux par 
besoin, vous Fetes par nature, 
lis sort ambitieux eontre leur 
gre, sans desir de Fetre. II est 
ambitieux par interet, et non 
par gout. 

Vous etes amoureux charts, 
d'etudes, de sciences ; eux sont 
amoureux de plaisirs, (^'amuse- 
ments ; d'autres sont amoureux 
pour rire, pendant un jour, 
sans savoir pourquoi ; 



They are ambitious of honors, 
of glory, of riches. They are 
too ambitious in their humble 
position^ We are ambitious 
through want, you are so by 
nature. They are ambitious 
against their will, without de- 
sire of being so. He is ambi- 
tious through interest, not by 
taste. 

You are fond of arts, stu- 
dies, sciences. They are fond, of 
pleasures, amusements. Others 
are amorous without serious 
cause, for a day, without know- 
ing why. 



II est jaloux sans cause et He is jealous without cause 

selon Fhumeur. II est jaloux and according to whim. He is 

par caprice. II est jaloux du jealous through caprice. He 

talent des autres. envies talent in others. 



Avide. 



Incapable. 



Elle est plus avide de parures 
J que de savoir. II est avide par 
1 besoin, selon sa fantaisie, pen- 
[ dant que la passion dure. 

II est incapable de bien faire 
comme de bien dire. Eux sont 
incapables par inexperience, 
par ignorance, par defaut de 
moyens. 



Complice. - 



Curieux. 



Aveugle. 



Boiteux. * 



Elle est complice de ce crime, 
et elle est complice acec lui. 
Nous sommes complices dans 
cette affaire. Elle fut com- 
plice par faiblesse. Pendant 
sa vie elle fut complice des 
crimes de son mari. Etes-vous 
complices dans cette affaire ? 

Elle est curieuse a connaitre, 
et curieuse eu toutes choses. II 
est curieux par nature et sans 
y paraitre. 

II est aveugle de naissance. 
II est aveugle dans son amour, 
par ignorance. Elle est 
aveugle depuis un an. 

II est boiteux de naissance, 
vous Fetes par accident. II est 
boiteux sans s'en apercevoir. 
Elle est boiteuse depuis sa 
chute de cheval. 



She craves finery more than 
learning. He is greedy through 
want, according to whim, as long 
as passion lasts. 

He is incapable of doing 
or speaking v:ell. They are in- 
capable through inexperience, 
through ignorance, through want 
of means. 

She is an accomplice in that 
crime, and an accomplice with 
him. We are accomplices in that 
affair. She was an accomplice 
through weakness. During life 
she was accomplice in the crimes 
of her husband. Are you ac- 
complices in that affair f 

She is worth knowing, and 
curious of every thing. He is 
naturally curious, and without 
appearing so. 

He has been blind from birth. 
He is blind in his affections, 
through ignorance. She has been 
blind for a year. 

He is lame by birth, you are so 
by accident. He is lame with- 
out knoiring it. She has been 
lame since her fall from a horse. 



568 



GRAMMAR. 



Bon. 



Cher. 



Si nous sommes bons d peu 
de chose, vous n'etes bon d 
rien. II est bon par nature. 
Cet effet est bon pour cent 
francs. 

II est cher d tous. Elle se 
rend chere par son amabilite. 
Cet objet est cher pour cause 
de rarete. Celui-la est cher d 
cause des materiaux qui le com- 
posent. 



If we are good for little, yon 
are good for nothing. He is 
naturally good. That note is 
good for one hundred francs. 

He is dear to every one. Her 
amiability endears her. That 
object is dear on account of being 
scarce. That one is dear on 
account of th'e materials of which 
it is composed. 



( Ardent d Poeuvre, ardent par Zealous at work, by nature, 

Ard t ! nature. Ardent pour le pa- Zealous to appear so, zealous 

J raitre, ardent sans le vouloir. without will. Zealous for a mo- 

[ Ardent pour un instant. ment. 

The preceding examples demonstrate how preposterous is the 
information given by dictionaries and lists of adjectives requiring 
determinate prepositions, either a or de, without mentioning the 
numerous exceptions to the cases in view. In our opinion, such lists 
and dictionaries pretending to indicate the use of prepositions are 
more prejudicial than profitable to learners; instead of enlarging 
their ideas, they restrict them with narrow precepts, and give short 
views of the cases. 



1195. To demonstrate the impossibility of giving rules on this 
subject, we will show that prepositions are always governed by 
the meaning in the mind, instead of depending on adjectives (67, 
413). 

The adjective complice, for instance, when participation in plot and 
commission in crime are to be expressed, requires the preposition 
de. Speaking of a man, we will say : 



II est complice de cet assassin, 
II est complice de ce crime, 



He is an accomplice with that murderer. 
He is an accomplice in that crime. 



Here, there is participation expressed, both in the perpetration of 
the plot and commission of the deed. 

Referring to the privacy of the plot, or to the secondary part taken 
in the commission of the deed, to express participation, dans is used 
instead of de. 



Ces hommes sont complices dans cette 
affaire, 



Those men are accomplices in that 
affair. 



In the first examples, de refers to persons and things ; in the last, 
dans serves to connect the perpetrator with the deed. The preposi- 



DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 569 

tion avec may replace of, de, to indicate participation with persons. 

It cannot do so where things are spoken of. 

Elle est complice avec lui dans cette She is an accomplice with him in that 
affaire criininelle, crime. 

The expression " grossier comme un pain d'orge," applied to per- 
sons, answers to very coarse mannered. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-NINTH. 

Determinative Adjectives. 

1196. Used for a, an, indeterminate article in English, un, une, 
we have remarked, agree in gender and number with the sub- 
stantives they precede (318, 1188). 

With the exception of vingt, cent, cardinal adjectives are inde- 
clinable in French. Multiplied by another number and followed 
immediately by substatives, vingt, cent, adopt the plural mark (583). 
Being common substantives in both languages, million, milliard, 
million, thousand millions, will also adopt the plural mark. 

1197". Demonstrative and possessive adjectives in French, as in 
English, are repeated before each noun which they determine (358 
bis). In such cases they always agree in gender and number with 
those nouns, except when feminine in gender they begin with vowels 
or h mute (368). 

Mon epee, mon hotesse. 

Remark. — Rejecting the elision in the form of the article placed 
before them (313), the ordinal adjective onzi&me and the substantive 
ouate are exceptions to this rule. With those words we will say : 
Sa onzierue annee, ma ouate (368). 

1198. To determine possession, or to indicate something chrome, 
customary, possessive adjectives are used instead of the determinate 
article (592). 

Ma maison, mon rhuinatisnie, sa fievre. 

1199* Contrary to English rules, in French, son, sa, ses, always 
agree with the common substantive which they determine, not with 



570 GRAMMAR. 

the possessor of the object possessed. Using the feminine forms 
with reference to objects possessed, we will say, speaking of a man: 

Sa niontre, sa cravate, sa canne, His watch, his cravat, his cane. 

Remark. — Here the feminine form sa, in French, corresponds to 
his, the masculine form, in English. Sa in French refers to the 
objects possessed, and adopts their gender and number; his, in Eng- 
lish, refers to the possessors, and agrees with them. 

On the contrary, speaking of things possessed by a woman, we 
will say : 

Son manteau, son chapeau, son chale, Her cloak, her hat, her shawl, her 
son piano, etc., piano, etc. 

Here, the possessive (367) adopting the gender of the objects pos- 
sessed, son answers to the feminine form her in English, representing 
the possessor. 

Connected with several units, the possessive adjectives notre, 
votre, leur, our, your, their, conveying ideas of plurality, are used 
in the plural (596). Connected with words having no plural, they 
remain in the singular (598). 

Leurs peres, leur argent, leur temps. 

1200. Relations between inanimate objects and inanimate pos- 
sessors cannot be expressed by son, sa, ses, unless those possessors 
are subjects in the sentences where the possessive adjectives occur 
(596). 
Le travail a ses charmes, Work has its pleasures. 

Nevertheless, if the substantives they determine are complements 
(303) of subjects standing in the principal proposition, son, sa, ses, 
may be used in sentences not having the inanimate possessor as 
subject. 

Ce navire est gracieux; tout le monde remarque T£16gance de ses formes. 

In cases where the objects possessors are not subjects of proposi- 
tions in which occur son, sa, ses, nor complements of substantives 
subjects in the principal proposition, the determinate article with 
the pronoun en is used instead of those possessive adjectives (596). 
Je viens de la ville, les agrements en sont nombreux.* 

1200 bis. Excluding the idea of plurality, aucun answers to no 
• For grammatical error, see Pujol and Van Norman, p. 156-85. 



DETERMINATIVE ADJECTIVES. 571 

(598) ; so does nul, corresponding to none in English. See No. 599 
for an exception to this rule. 

The English expressions : a cousin of mine, a cousin of yours, a 
house of mine, are rendered in French under the forms : Un de mes 
cousins; un de vos cousins ; une de mes maisons. 

In jocose style, the expressions: Un mien parent, un mien ami, etc., 
are occasionally met with in French. They are, however, nevor used 
except in a ludicrous sense. 

Before two qualifying adjectives connected with the same substan- 
tive, determinative adjectives should not be repeated (609). 

1201. Answering to each, chaque cannot be used without a sub- 
stantive following it (600). Equivalent to each one, chacun takes its 
place in such cases. 

See numbers 601, 604, 606, for the syntax of mime, quelque, tout. 
Followed by determinate substantives in the singular, the adjec- 
tive tout, toute, denoting continuance in actions, corresponds to the 
whole, in English. 

Nous passons tout le jour a l'etude, We spend the whole day in study. 

Us s'amusent toute la journee, They play the whole day. 

Followed by plural substantives, the same words, answering to 
every, in English, express periodicity in action. 

II nous vient voir tous les ans, He comes to see us every year, 

Elle nous visite toutes les semaines, She visits us every week. 

Remark. — To express periodicity, chaque, every, may be used in- 
stead of tout. 

Substantives, in that case, are used in the singular in both lan- 
guages. 

Elle vient nous voir chaque jour, She comes to see us every day, 

Elle nous visite chaque semaine, She visits us every week. 

See Fasquelle's Method, page 87-8-9 for incomplete definitions. 



49 



572 GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER THIRTIETH. 

Pronouns in the Two Languages. 

1202* In their general use, in both languages, pronouns must re- 
present determinate substantives (610). Therefore, indeterminate 
substantives joined to verbs, answering in signification to a simple 
verb, or indeterminate substantives coupled with prepositions, equi- 
valent to one adverb, cannot be represented by pronouns. 

1203. Pronouns should not be repeated with new connections; 
they should refer to the same object (616). Neither should they be 
used in an equivocal manner, holding a doubtful connection with 
two nouns, when only representing one (618, 711). 

Remark. — In French, pronouns are never used before nouns to 
determine their sex, as they are sometimes used in English (619). 
We say in French: 

Un bouc, une chevre, un chat, une A he-goat, a she-goat, a he or she cat, 
chatte, etc., etc. 

Small animals or vermin, in French, are used in only one gender. 

Rat, 1 Souris, ") Rat, ") m s Mouse, ^ 

Pou, >masculin, Puce, f-feminin, Lice, >• y ' Flea, \ feminine. 

Ver, J Punaise, J Worm, J cmine > Bedbug, J 

Pronouns are subject to the same rules as qualifying adjectives 
(556, 557, 558, etc.). 

Personal Pronouns Subjects (374, 620). 

1204. Conjugated affirmatively, personal pronouns in both lan- 
guages occupy the same place before verbs (21). 

In simple tenses, occurring in interrogative sentences, they are 
placed after verbs. In compound tenses they stand between the 
auxiliary and the participle. An exception to this rule, in French, 
is found when the interrogative form est-ce-que? is used at the be- 
ginning of sentences. 

The personal pronouns moi, toi, ltd, eux, are used after que in com- 
parisons, answering in English to I, thou, he, she, they, when a verb 
is understood in that language (484). 



PRONOUNS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 573 

Vous etes plus vertueux que moi, You are more virtuous than I. 

II est plus instruit que lui et elle, He is more learned than he and she. 

The above sentences are elliptical in English, answering to "You 
are more virtuous than I am virtuous." 

In affirmative or negative sentences, when verbs are preceded by 
some of the words aussi, peut-etre, encore, toujours, en vain, sur-le- 
champ, etc., pronouns are also placed after verbs (622). 

Sur-le-champ nous mimes-nous en mesure. 

Remark. — Interrogations are in the thought, not in the form of 
construction, as already shown (952). 

In exclamatory sentences expressing surprise, wish, desire, or con- 
tempt (621), the pronoun follows the verb. 

Est-il fourbe! Is he a knave! 

Puissiez-vous, mon fils, etre exauee" ! May you be gratified in your tcishes,my 

son! 

1205. Standing as complements, personal pronouns generally pre- 
cede verbs in French ; they invariably follow them in English. 

1*206. Pronouns complements are placed after verbs in the im- 
perative mode, except the verbs be conjugated negatively, in which 
case personal pronouns complements precede the verbs (623). 

Donnons-leur r argent, Let us give them their money. 

Ne lui faites pas de mal, Do not hurt him. 

In the first case, the French and English constructions agree ; they 
differ in the second. 

1207. Where verbs in the imperative mode have two comple- 
ments (direct and indirect), both are placed after the verbs, the 
direct complement having precedence over the indirect (1148, 443). 

Cedez-le nous, Give it to us. 

Arrogez-vous ce droit (265), Arrogate that right to yourselves. 

Remark. — In the second French example, the objective pronoun 
voiw, answering to the indirect object to yourselves, and inseparable 
from the verb, precedes the direct object ce droit, constituting an ex- 
ception to the rule. 

In imperative cases used affirmatively, pronouns objects, we have 
remarked, are placed after verbs. In other modes, pronouns assum- 
ing that place are indirect objects, being always preceded by preposi- 
tions (74). 



f>74 GRAMMAR. 

II vient a moi, He comes to me. 

Je pense a v r ous et a eux, / think of you and of them. 

Remark. — In both languages, pronouns complements follow neuter 
verbs, except when the indirect objects me, te, lui, etc., correspond- 
ing with a moi, d toi, a lui, etc., precede such verbs, in French. 

H me vient a Tesprit d'etudier, It occurs to me to study. 

II me va de le faire ainsi, It suits me to do it in that way, 

II me court par la tete d'y aller, Something tells me to go there, 

or when those indirect complements are followed by the conjunction 
que. 

C^est a moi qu'il vient, He comes to me. 

C'est a vous et a eux que je pense, It is of you and of them that I am 

thinking. 
C'est d'eux et d'elles que nous parlons, It is of them that toe speak. 

120$. From what precedes we deduce this general rule. Comple- 
ments of verbs personal pronouns never take prepositions when 
coming before verbs; because direct complements reject them, and 
indirect ones have prepositions within themselves, whenever holding 
that place. 

B me trompe, for il trompe moi, He deceives me. 

II nous en donne, for il donne de cela He gives some to us. 
a nous, 

We have shown above the exceptions to this general principle. 

1209. Used as subjects, personal pronouns must be repeated 
when propositions are connected by conjunctions other than et, ou, 
ni, mats. Taste or clearness of thought must be our guide in such 
cases (628). 

1210. With verbs in simple tenses, personal pronouns objects 
must be repeated before each verb (630). After auxiliaries in com- 
pound tenses, the repetition of such pronouns is optional, unless they 
form complements of different species (632). 

Standing for Je or moi, /, the personal pronoun nous requires 
every word depending on it to be in the singular. When used for 
tu, toi, thou, the same rule applies to the pronoun vous, you (633). 

Nous ne nous sommes pas crw oi%e We did not think proper to answer him* 

de lui repondre, 

Vous n'etes pas certain que ce soit You are not certain of its truth. 

vrai, 



PRONOUNS JN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 575 

Here nous, vous, we, you, though plural pronouns, represent single 
persons in both languages. If the participles cru, oblige", and the 
adjective certain, in the above examples, had the plural mark, plu- 
rality in the subjects would be indicated. 

Remark. — In speaking to persons, when intimacy is to be ex- 
pressed, the second person singular is very frequently used in 
French. 

Veux-tu-parler? Veux-tu te taire? Wilt thou apeak? Wilt thou be silent? 

1211. Always singular, the personal pronoun soi represents a per- 
son or thing, corresponding with himself, herself, itself in English. 
In accordance with the rule governing complements preceded by 
prepositions expressed, it always comes after verbs (1207). 

Chacun travaille pour soi, Every one works for himself. 

Tout le monde ne songe qu'a soi, Every man thinks of himself. 

Le vent emporte tout avec soi, The wind sweeps every thing with it. 

Preceded by the personal pronouns lui, elle, the adjective meme in 
reference to persons may take the place of so i. 

En remplissant la volonte de son pere, ce jeune homme travaille pour lui- 

meme. 
En tout ce qu'elle fait, cette femme ne songe qu'a elle-meme. 

The personal pronouns lui, eux, elle, elles, used as indirect objects, 
apply to persons only (637). 

Answering to of it, to it, the pronouns en, y, are employed for 
things (377) and persons. 

Representing substantives, the personal pronouns le, la, les, agree 
with them in gender and number (639). Referring to adjectives, 
the form le remains invariable (331, 639). 

For cases like the above, we refer to the syntax. Comparison of 
French and English constructions, facilitating the comprehension and 
memorizing of rules, will familiarize learners with the peculiarities 
of the French tongue. 

Remark. — Objective pronouns, with reflective verbs, stand always 
before the other complements (1207). 

lis ne se le disent pas. IK*se le disent, They do not tell it to themselves. They 

do tell it to themselves. 
Ne se le diront-ils pas? Will they not tell it to themselves? 

40* 



576 GRAMMAR. 

Demonstrative Pronouns. 

1212. In the following cases, he, she, it, they, answer to the demon- 
strative ce. 

Je lis Shakspeare; c'est mon auteur / read Shakspeare ; he is my favorite 

favori, author. 

Je meprise cette femme ; c'est la plus / despise that woman; she is the icorst- 

mechante que je connaisse, tempered woman I am acquainted 

with. 

J'ai lu l'lliade; c'est le poeme lc plus / have read the Iliad; it is the most 

naturel, natural of poems. 

Je connais ces messieurs,* ce sont des J know those gentlemen; they are Ame- 

Americains, ricans. 

1213. Combined with %tre, connected with relative pronouns sub- 
jects of sentences, ce answers to what, in English (642). 

Ce qui est certain c'est que vous avez What is certain is that you are wrong, 

tort, 
Ce que vous savez est (ou c'est) peu de What you know is very little, 

chose (645), 

Ce may sometimes be understood in French. In the preceding 
cases it is not expressed in English. 

Answering to this, that, those, he, she, they,' the pronouns celui, 
celle, ceux, celles, in French, express general ideas which require 
limitation. On this account they are followed by indirect comple- 
ments, or relative pronouns standing always before verbs (649). 

Les defauts de Henri quatre etaient The failings of Henry the Fourth were 

ceux d'un homme aimable, ceux de those of an amiable man, those of 

Henri huit ceux d'un homme sans Henry the Eighth were those of a 

entrailles (1185), heartless man. 

Ceux qui font les lois ne sont pas tou- Those who make laws are not always 

jours ceux qui les observent le the closest observers of them. 
mieux, 

Celui qui le dit est un menteur, He who says so lies. 

1214. Always representing nouns, celui, celle, ceux, celles, must 
be expressed in French sentences. They cannot, as in English, be 
replaced by possessive adjectives preceding nouns. 

J'ai votre livre et celui de votre frere, / have your book and your brother's. 

Possessive Pronouns. 

1215* In French, possessive pronouns are declinable words (381). 
They are always preceded by the forms of the determinate article, 
•with which they agree in gender, number, and person. Relating 
to nouns previously enunciated, they cannot be employed without 



PRONOUNS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 577 

<• 
direct reference to those antecedents. Used substantively, having a 
signification independent of other words, they follow the syntax of 
common substantives (271). 

Le mien et le tien sont la source de Mine and thine (or distinction in pro- 
bien des maux en ee monde, perty) is the cause of many difficulties 

in the world. 

Les notres se sont mieux battus que Ours fought better than yours. 
les votres, 

See Syntax, No. 654. 

Relative Pronouns. 
1216. Relative pronouns always agree with their antecedents in 
gender, number, and person (655). 

Remark. — Used interrogatively, qui has for antecedent the sub- 
stantive person understood. 

Quiparle? qui chante? qui dort? Who speaks? Who sings? Who sleeps? 

Answering to quelle est la personne qui parle? etc., iclw is the 
per'son speaking? etc. 

Representing of whom, of which, referring to persons or things, 
the relative pronoun dont, in French, always has antecedents. It 
must not be confounded with the conjunction done, answering to 
therefore, 

I/homme dont nous parlons est venu, The man of whom we speak has come. 

La femme dont vous parlez est malade, The woman of whom you speak is sick. 

I/affaire dont nous causons est excel- The affair of which we are speaking is 
lente, good. 

In the first two examples, dont refers to persons; in the last, it re- 
lates to things. 

In relation to persons, dont refers simply to actions dependent on 

or independent of ourselves. 

Ce dont je parle, The thing I mention. 

La famille dont je sors, The family from which I spring. 

On the contrary, d'ou expresses extraction or real actions we have 
performed. ^ 

Le pays d'ou jo viens, The country I come from. 

The improper use of these words* would occasion ludicrous errors. 

For instance, should we say: "Et je soutiens la vue de ce sacre" 
soleil d'oii je suis descendue." Instead of expressing the fact that 
you have the sun for progenitor, the meaning would be that you came 
down from the sun. 



578 GRAMMAR. 

Que answers to whom, for persons (777); which, for things (777). 

La femine que je vois, The woman (whom) I see. 

L'hoinnie que nous connaissons, The man (whom) we know. 

La chose que vous savez, The thing (which) you know. 

Remark. — Which, whom, may be dropped in English, in cases 
where their equivalent que cannot be dispensed with in French. 

Used in exclamatory phrases, que also will answer to what, in 
English. 

Que vous importe cela! What is that to you! 

Qu'importe que nous restions ou que What matters it that we should stay or 
nous partions dans une heure ! that we should leave within an hour ! 

Que ne answers to why: it is the ellipsis of pourquoi ne (815). 

Que ne faisiez-vous plus vite? Why did you not hurry more ? 

Connected with verbs used interrogatively, que answers to what, 
in English. 

Qu'allez-vous faire ? que dites-vous ? What are you going to do ? What are 

you saying? 

Used with infinitives, as que dire, que croire, que penser, it an- 
nounces elliptic propositions, answering in these instances to que 
devons-nous croire, que devons-nous dire? etc. 

In such cases, the meaning is interrogative ; the verb and the 
subject expressing the interrogation are understood (486, 952). 

Combined with en, que corresponds with de cela, of it. 

Qu'en dit-on? Qu'en pensez-vous? What do they say of it? What do they 

think of it ? 

Relating to persons,, qu'importe, n' importe, are ellipses of qu'im- 
porte a nous, k eux, ou a elles, or n'iniporte a nous, a vous, k eux 
ou a elles, as shown in the foregoing examples. To complete their 
meaning, those expressions may have incidental propositions for com- 
plements. 

N'importe qu'il vienne. Qu'importe qu'il lef asset 



Indefinite Pronouns. 

1217. The indefinite pronoun on has for its nearest equivalent 
people, in English (665). 

Singular in form, those words, on, people, always refer to plural 
nouns. On may be employed in French to represent persons of 
either sex. 



PRONOUNS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 579 

When it unequivocally represents persons of the female sex, on 
becomes feminine. It adopts the plural number when the significa- 
tion indicates several persons. In such cases, participles or adjec- 
tives under its government show by their variability the gender and 
number of the pronoun, which is itself invariable. 

Quand on est niariee, on n'est jamais When married, a woman is never 
maitresse de ses actions, arbiter of her actions. 

On est toujours heureux quand on When fond of each other and united, 
s'aime et qu'on est unis, people are always happy. 

Each of the above sentences contains two propositions: one prin- 
cipal, the other incidental (476, 477). The first contains an inver- 
sion standing for: On n'est jamais maitresse de ses actions quand on 
est marine. Maitresse, marine, being feminine, show that a woman 
is speaking. On the contrary: Quand on est marie*, on n'est pa^ 
maitre de ses actions, would indicate a man as the subject, the par- 
ticiple mari4 having the masculine form. 

In the course of French sentences, on is frequently preceded by a 
euphonic l, but never at the beginning of sentences (667). 

Do not say: L'on dit cela, I/on fait ceci. 

In English, on may be represented by we, they, one t it (665). 

On dit que votre pere est ici, It is reported that your father is here. 

Vaguely representing plural nouns connected with verbs, it stands 
for one of the pronouns of the third person singular, il, elle. In 
such cases, on is almost always nominative of active or reflective 
verbs, generally rendered in English in the passive voice (1171). 

On rScolte (ou il se recolte) beaucoup Much wheat is harvested. 

de ble, 
On recolte (ou il se recolte) beaucoup Much oil is raised in Italy. 

d'huile en Italie, 
On dit que votre soeur est malade, It is reported that your sister is sick. 

On generally refers to several persons, whether subordinates or 
superiors. 

A-t-on porte mes lettres a la poste ? Have my letters been brought to the 

post-office ? 

A-t-on bien accueille ma supplique? Have they favorably received my peti- 
tion ? 

See No. 665 and following of the Syntax. 



* For inexact definition, see Pujol and Van Norman, p. 164-130. 



580 GRAMMAR. 

Quiconque answers to whoever. Used without antecedents, answer- 
ing to celui qui, celle qui, it may refer to persons of either sex. 

Quiconque natte n'est pas un vrai Wlioever is a flatterer cannot be a true 

ami, friend. 

Quiconque abandonne son pere ou sa Whoever forsakes his father or mother 

mere est un enfant denature, is an unnatural child. 

Preceded by substantives standing for antecedents, quiconque 
must be replaced by the relative qui. Therefore say : 

Mesdames, qui devous serait assez hardie? instead of: Mesdames, quiconque 
de vous serait assez hardie P* 

The subject mesdames in this sentence excludes the use of indefi- 
nite pronouns, and requires to be recalled by a relative. Quiconque 
de vous is very harsh to French ears, and opposed to the theories on 
indefinite pronouns used always without antecedents. 

Naturally masculine, quiconque nevertheless associates with femi- 
nine words wlien referring to feminine nouns. Adjectives and par- 
ticiples in such cases adopt the gender of the sex they qualify. 

Quiconque est pere doit etre indulgent Whoever is a father must be indulgent 
et respecte, and respected. 

Quiconque est mere doit etre in- Whoever is a mother must be indulgent 
dulgente et respectee, and respected. 

Quelconque, whatever, indefinite adjective, must not be confounded 
with quiconque. Variable as to number, quelconque is always placed 
after nouns : 

Deux lignes quelconques etant donnees (605). 



CHAPTER THIRTY-FIRST. 

Verbs in the Two Languages. 

1217 bis. The French and English syntax on verbs agree in ideas. 
They differ from each other as far as general principles and funda- 
mental elements are concerned. By means of inflexions, without the 
help of personal pronouns or auxiliaries, French verbs will indicate 

* For a misuse of that pronoun, see Keetel's Xew Method, p. 360-11. 



VERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 581 

mode, tense, person, number, or gender in subjects. In the present 
indicative with verbs of the first conjugation the inflexions 
Aim-e, aim-es, aim-e, aim-ons, aim-ez, aim-enf, 

unerringly indicate mode, tense, number, and person (121). 

Used without auxiliaries, past participles agree in gender and 
number, as do French adjectives, with nouns. Combined with the 
auxiliary avoir, these past participles agree with subjects when 
preceded by direct complements of active verbs (773, 777). 

Present infinitives of verbs of the first conjugation end invari- 
ably in er (62). If we except the use of personal pronouns, common 
to French and English verbs, or the inflexion the last take in the 
second and third persons singular of a few tenses, indicating 
neither mode, tense, number, nor person, we might call English verbs 
invariable words. Conjugated mostly with auxiliaries in every mode 
or tense, English verbs do not properly possess simple tenses. With 
the same meaning we could say : I walk or I do walk, I walked or I 
did walk, etc. 

In the study of the two languages, the difference of principles 
with respect to the verb — the most important part of speech in 
every language — has been looked on as a reciprocal difficulty. Yet, 
methodically considered, however different they may be from each 
other, French* verbs when properly presented are easily understood 
and memorized by learners. (See p. 208, Twentieth Exercise). 

Regular verbs are divided into four classes, each class having the 
same inflexions for mode, tense, number, and person, with the ex- 
ception of the characteristic ending of present infinitives (62). 

In those four classes, the inflexions are always the same. The 
differences in the endings are found in a few tenses of irregular 
verbs (186). 

1218. Tenses variable in their inflexions or endings are 

The present indicative (187 and following), 

The past determinate (126), 

The imperative of a few verbs (133), 

The present subjunctive (139), 

The imperfect subjunctive (140), 

The infinitive (62). 

Those invariable in their endings, in every French verb, regular 
or irregular, are 



582 GRAMMAR. 

The imperfect of the indicative (125), 
The future (131), 
The conditional (132).- 

1219. In the four conjugations, the past determinate regulates 
the inflexions of the imperfect in the subjunctive mode ; that tense 
being derived from the other (120). 

The study of French verbs, so perplexing when confusedly pre- 
sented, once reduced to general principles, becomes interesting and 
of easy acquisition for learners. 

To express actions acted and suffered by subjects, or done by 
subjects and simultaneously performed with other persons, the 
reflective voice is used in French, while the active or passive is 
used in English > 

Je me suis coupe" le doigt, I cut my finger. 

Tu t/es foule le pied, Thou hast sprained thy foot. 

Nous sommes repentis de nos fautes, We repented of our faults. 

In regard to things, when the action expressed by verbs has a 
direct reference to their subjects, they use also the same voice. 

Ces maisons se sont vendues tres-cher, Those houses were sold very high. 

Les choses se passerent ainsi, Things went on thus. 

Nos arbres se font vieux, • Our trees are growing old. 

With reflective verbs, the auxiliary etre, to be, in compound tenses, 
is conjugated with the meaning of avoir, to have (95). 

J'ai coupe* le doigt a moi is the grammatical construction of " Je me 
suis coup6 le doigt" — a sentence in which je is subject, suis verb, 
coupe* attribute. Le doigt direct complement, a moi indirect object 
or complement, are complements of the attribute (472). 

In either French or English, subjects must have a verb in a per- 
sonal mode. Verbs always agree in gender, number, and person 
with their subject (679, 773). 

In both languages, verbs having several subjects must be used in 
the plural (680), agreeing with the person having priority (372). 

La colere et la precipitation sont deux Anger and precipitancy are opposed to 

choses opposSes a la prudence, prudence. 

Vous et moi sommes contents, You and I are satisfied. 

1st. Exception to this rule in French. 

"Where the words constituting a subject are synonymous, contrary 

to the English rule, verbs are used in the singular (682). 

La douceur, la bonte du grand Henri The mildness and goodness of Henry 
a 6t6 celebree de mille louanges, the Great have been celebrated by 

many praises. 



VERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 583 

2d. With words connected by the conjunctions ou, comme, ainsi 
que, etc. (688). 

L'ignorance ou le besoin lui a fait Ignorance or want has led him to the 
commettre cette faute, commission of that fault. 

In either French or English, the conjunction ou excludes one of 
the subjects (683), and verbs agree with the last. 

Remark. — Connected by ou, should subjects be of different per- 
sons, put in the plural according to general rule, verbs agree with 
the person which has priority (684). 

Vous ou moi ecrirons, You or I will write. 

Lui ou vous partire*, He or you will go. 

The differences in inflexions cannot be expressed with English 
verbs. 

1st. Where words are placed in a graduated order, forming a 
climax, the predominant idea requires verbs in the singular (685). 

Ce sacrifice — votre intSret, votre hon- This sacrifice — your interest, your 
neur, Dieu Texige, honor, God, require it. 

2d. When constituting subjects, different words are summed up 
in a single idea absorbing all the others (686). 

Maisons et arbres, tout fut detruit, Houses, trees, all teas destroyed. 

Le temps, le bien, la vie, tout est a la Time, -property, life, all belongs to our 

patrie, country. 

Deinocrates ou republicans, chaoun Democrats or republicans, each looks 

cherche son interet particulier, to his own interest. 

lis out porte chacun leur fardeau, Each carried his burden. 

Remark. — Qualifying and determinative adjectives, in the last 
two cases, are governed by the same rules as verbs. 

L'un et Pautre, in French, like its equivalent both, in English, 
requires the plural (689). 

Ni Pun ni P autre, neither one nor the other, also requires the plural 
form of the verb in French, though not in English (690). 

In affirmations, where there are two subjects, English or French 
verbs are put in the plural (680). 

Hun V autre, in negative cases, requires verbs in the singular, when 
the action expressed cannot be at once performed by both subjects 
(691). 

Ni toi ni lui ne sera nomme a cet em- Neither you nor he will obtain that 
ploi, situation. 

When the actions expressed by verbs, on the contrary, can be at 

50 



5S4 GRAMMAR. 

the same time performed by both subjects, contrary to the English 

syntax, French verbs require the plural form (690). 

Ni Tor ni la grandeur ne nous rendent Neither gold nor greatness makes us 
heureux, happy. 

In French or English, with two infinitives standing as subjects, 
followed by third persons plural, verbs are used in the plural (692). 

Lire et ecrire sont deux occupations, Beading and writing are two occu- 

pations. 

For exceptions applicable to French cases, see No. 695. 

See Nos. 696, 697, 698, etc., for cases in which verbs agree with 
collective nouns or with substantives accompanying collectives. 

All that we need here remark on this part of the two syntaxes is, 
that, with a few exceptions agreeing with collective nouns, verbs in 
English are used in the plural (276). 

Le peuple souffre, People are suffering. 

1220. To express the same connection, verbs, in either language, 
cannot have two direct complements (704). 

Je ne me fache pas de votre conduite, I do not complain of your conduct. 

In the preceding example, me, direct object, expresses a connection 
with the subject ; de votre conduite, indirect object, refers to the per- 
son spoken to. 

The same principle applies equally to indirect objects, it being 
improper in either French or English (705) to say: 

C'est d vous d qui je parle, It is to you to whom I speak, 

instead of: 

C'est a vous que je parle, It is to you I speak. 

1221* Except conjugated actively, neuter or intransitive verbs in 
French or English require indirect complements (706), — viz.: words 
preceded by prepositions (92). 

Je parle d lui, d'eux, d elle, d'elle, / speak to him, of them, to her, of her, 

Nous glissons sur la glace, We slide on the ice. 

Nous parlons purement notre langue, We speak our language correctly. 

According to the same general principle, active or transitive verbs, 
unless used intransitively, require direct complements (91). 

J'etudie cela, I study that. 

Nous mangeons du pain, We eat some bread. 

II £tudie avec application, He studies loith assiduity. 



VERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 585 

Remark. — In the first examples, used transitively, the intransitive 
verb parhr has for direct complement notre langue. In the last, 
used intransitively, the transitive verb itudier has for indirect com- 
plement avec application. 

In the sentence nous mangeons du pain, du, answering to some, 
being partitive, is a direct object (536, 537). Du answering to any, 
on the contrary, has a determinate signification referring to a ichole 
class, and is an indirect object. 

1222. Composed of several parts, each connected by one of the 
conjunctions et, ni, on, in both languages, complements of verbs 
require to be expressed by words of the same species (712). 

II aime le jeu, le plaisir, le travail, He likes play, jileasure, and work. 

French or English passive verbs are connected with their objects 
by prepositions. 

For the use of the preposition de or par, see No. 713. 

Where active verbs have two complements, one direct, the other 

indirect, to avoid ambiguity, the shortest must be placed first (711). 

Croyez vous, par la douceur, pouvoir ramener ces esprits egares ? 
X'avez-vous pas, dans votre bibliotheque, l'histoire de Louis quatorze? 

When two verbs have different indirect complements, each must 
have appropriate prepositions (708). 

Un grand nombre de vaisseaux entrent Many vessels go in and out of this har- 
dans ce port et en sortent, bor. 

See 709 and 710 for the place of complements of verbs. 

Use of the Auxiliaries in the Two Languages. 

1223. In French and English, the auxiliaries avoir, Ure, have 
generally the same office. Still, there are many cases where the two 
syntaxes are at variance on this point, as, for instance, in the idioms 
avoir chaud, avoir froid, avoir f aim, to be warm, to be cold, to be hungry, 
where avoir in French signifies to be in English. With reflective 
verbs, to be corresponds in French with to liave used in English 
(988, 1008). 

Nous avons chaud, et vous avez froid, We are warm, and you are cold. 

Je me suispuni, vous vous etesrepentis, / have punished myself, you have 

repented. 
Nous nous sommes prornenes, We did walk, or we have taken a walk. 

Dropped in English in some cases, auxiliaries are retained in 
French (720). 

According to a general principle, verbs employed unipersonally 



GRAMMAR. 

are conjugated in the third person singular in French. In English 
the auxiliary to be, answering to etre and avoir in French, is an 
exception to that general rule (103), as shown in the following 
examples. 

II v a un hcinine, il y a deux homines. There is a man, there are two men. 

H est un houime instruit qui me com- There is a learned man who under- 

prend. stands me. 

Hest des hommes qui aiment la vertu, There are men who love virtue. 

:. it y a, rendered in English by there is, there are, express the 
same idea in French. Both have the same indeterminate significa- 
tion, referring vaguely to persons without identifying them. 

Followed by words expressive of past periods of time, ily a answers 
to ago in English. 

R y a un an que nous nous rencon- A year ago we had a meeting together. 

traines, 

Use of the Indicative axd Conditional Modes. 

1224. To express an idea more forcibly, French and English 
often use the present for the past or future. 

J'ai vu votre fils : il se porte bien, / saw your son : he is 

Je suis ici dans un instant, / am here in a moment. 

The indirect complement dans un instant, in a moment, indi 

that the present is used for future (52, o9. 72f . 

With reference to things permanently true, the same tense is used. 

Je vous ai dit que la terre tourne, I told you that the earth turns. 

Vous ni'avez assure que le soleil est You assured me that the sun stands 

fixe, still. 

Vous disiez que la vertu est sainte, You said that virtue is holy. 

Consequently, to express permanence, we cannot use the imper- 
fect (728). Generally rendered in English by the present participle 
of verbs combined with to be, or the expression used to preceding 
infinitives, the imperfect tense, in French, has the same inflexions in 
all the con i of verbs. 

Remark. — Contrary to English v simple tenses in French 

are conjugated with one form. 

Present indicative. J'aime, ( T love, I do m loving. 

Imperfect JV: vering to < I loved, I was loving, fused to love. 

Past determinate, J'aimai, ( I loved, I did love. 

1225. In sentence expressing the same idea must be used 
in the same ten-: ~_7 , 



VERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 587 

To express time past without reference to any determinate period, 
the past definite or the indefinite may be used (731). 

J'ai ecrit une lettre a mon frere, " / icrote a letter to my brother. 

Vous eerivites a votre frere, You icrote to your brother. 

With reference to periods entirely past, and specified in the sen- 
tence, the same tenses may be used also. 

Hier j'ecrivis a votre sceur, / icrote to your sister yesterday, 

Hierj'ai ecrit a votre seeur, I have been writing to your sister yes- 

terday. 

"Where the periods mentioned in sentences have part of their time 
to run, use the past indefinite, and not the past definite (729). 
Ce matin j'ai ecrit a votre p&re, / wrote to your father this morning. 

Therefore, we cannot say, with the past definite, in French : 

J'ecrivis ce matin une lettre, 

Nous ecrivimes a votre pere cette semaine, 

Vous payates votre loyer cette annee; 

because the determinate substantives matin, semaine, annee, express 
periods in course of duration at the time when the words are uttered, 
though those words refer to acts entirely accomplished. 

Contrary to English principles governing the same tenses, futures 
and conditionals in French take no auxiliaries. They maintain the 
same inflexions through the four conjugations, whether regular or 
irregular. See 131, 132, 

J'aimerai a le faire, / will like to do it. 

J'aimerais a y aller, I Would like to go. 

French futures sometimes correspond with the potential mode in 

English. 

Croira quivoudrarhistorienCapitolin, May believe who will the historian 

Capitolinus. 

In both languages there is an ellipsis here. May in English indi- 
cates the potential mode. 

In the incidental proposition, in French, the verb croire is under- 
stood ; in the principal, the subject of the verb is dropped (676). 

The English potential mode is sometimes rendered by the subjunc- 
tive or present infinitive in French. 

Dois-je abandonner mon enfant pour Must I abandon my child and let him 

le laisser croupir dans le vice ? sink in vice ? 

Devez-vous consentir a ce qu'il soit Must you consent that he be punished t 

puni, 

For rules as to the choice of the two modes, see 756. 

50* 



588 GRAMMAR. 

The present indicative in French may answer to the future in 
English (726). 

French imperatives have inflexions to express mode, tense, person, 
or number. In that mode, pronouns subjects are always understood, 
and pronouns connected with imperatives of active and reflective 
verbs are objective pronouns. 

Marche, Walk (thou). 

Marchons, Let us icalk. 

Marchez, Walk {you). 

Asseyons-nous, Let us sit. 

French imperatives are simple tenses, needing no auxiliary, un- 
like the English. 



Use of the Subjunctive in Both Languages. 

1226. French subjunctives are rendered in English by different 
tenses (736 and following). When verbs in the principal proposition 
express will, wish, command, fear, etc., 

II veut que vous obeissiez, He wants you to obey, 

II desire que vous reussiez, He wishes you to succeed, 

II craint que vous ne tombiez (817), He fears you will fall, 

verbs in the incidental are in the present infinitive or future of the 
indicative in English. 

After principal propositions expressing interrogations or contain- 
ing negations, verbs in the subjunctive in French are answered by 
the present or future of the indicative mode in English. 

Crovez-vous 1 Do you ) , ,. ., . , 

T J . [ ,., . o ^ r 7 [ believe that he is comma 

Je ne crois pas > qu llvienne? etc., 1 do not > m * 

i, r [ ^ ' ^ or will come 7 

r^e croyez-vous-pas J Do you not J 

Where the principal proposition expresses something certain, posi- 
tive, verbs in the incidental proposition, in both languages, will be in 
the indicative mode. 
Je crois qu'il vient, / believe he is coming. 

1227. When principal propositions express doubt, the subjunc- 
tive mode is used after comparisons ; or the indicative when positive. 

C'est rhomme le plus faux que je con- So far as I know, he is the falsest man, 

naisse, 
C'est Thomme le plus faux que je con- The falsest man I recognize (1112). 

nais, 



VERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 589 

After relative pronouns, or the adverb ou, when verbs following 

express an uncertainty, the subjunctive mode is required in French, 

when in English the future of the indicative is used. 

Je cherche quelqu'un qui m'aime, I seek somebody ivho tcill love me. 

Je sollicite une place qui me soit utile I solicit a situation which will be use- 

et de mon gout, ful to me and to my liking. 

J'irai dans un pays ou je serai libre, I will go to a country where I shall be 

free. 

The conjunction que, and other conjunctive expressions, govern no 
mode. It is the positive or doubtful signification of the principal 
proposition which requires verbs in the incidental to be in the indi- 
cative or subjunctive mode (847), as we have just remarked. 

Remark. — Always express subjunctives in French with inflexions, 
not vvith auxiliaries, as in English. 
It will be necessary for me to come, II faudra que je vienne (162 bis). 

Use of the Infinitive Mode in the Two Languages. 

1228. Infinitives in French are used as subjects or complements 
(457, 756). 

Employed as subjects in the place of substantives, they answer 

generally to the present participle or to substantives in English. 

Used as complements of verbs, they correspond always with present 

participles in English. 

Le boire, le manger, le dormir, Drinking , eating, sleeping. 

Le lever du jour, le tomber du jour, The dawn of the day, the fall of the 

day. 
Je ne peux cesser de rire, / cannot stop laughing. 

Present infinitives are used in French after verbs connected in 

English by the conjunction and, each standing in a different mode. 

Allez chercher le medecin, Go fetch the physician (or go and fetch, 

etc.). 

With two imperatives we may say : 
Mangez et buvez ceci, Eat and drink this. 

A verb preceded and governed by another verb [avoir and etre ex- 
cepted), or preceded by a preposition other than en, is used in the 
following modes : 

In the imperative, when commands or exhortations are to be ex- 
pressed. 

In the indicative or subjunctive, when certainty or doubt is 
meant by the sense. 

Allez, apportez le pain, Go bring the bread. 

Je crois qu'il vient, / believe he is coming. 

Croyez-vous qu'il vienne? Do you believe he will come? 



590 GRAMMAR. 

Using no auxiliary in simple tenses, it is obvious that French an- 
swers must differ from English ones, in which verbs are generally 
dropped. In French ansvrers, therefore, verbs are repeated. 

Irez-vous a Paris? Om,firai, Will you go to Paris? Yes, J will. 

Both of these sentences are elliptical. They stand for: 

Irez-vous a Paris? Oui, firai d Paris, Will you go to Paris? Yes, I will go 

to Paris. 

If the monosyllabic affirmation, oui, yes, were used, the proposi- 
tion would be implicit, the subject, verb, and attribute being under- 
stood (486). 

1229. Infinitives may be complements of other verbs with or with- 
out prepositions. 

Aller manger, ( To go and eat. 

Aimer a rire, answering to \ To love to laugh. 

Parler d'ecrire, ( To speak of writing. 

For infinitives preceded by the prepositions d, de, pour, see Nos. 
760, 761, 762, 1177, 1178. 

Remark. — Though aimer is generally followed by the preposition 
d, using pour, we might say: 

Aimer pour rire n'est pas aimer, To simulate love is not to love. 

Present Participle. 

1230. Like infinitives in French, present participles are used 
substantively in English. 

Le boire, le manger, le dormir, Drinking, eating, sleeping. 

In- this acceptation they may stand in sentences for subjects or 
complements of verbs (457, 459). 

Preceded in English by prepositions other than en, in, they are 

rendered by present infinitives in French. 

J'ai le plaisir de penser qu'ils sont I have the pleasure of thinking that they 
heureux, are happy. 

Preceded by en, always expressing actions, they are called gerunds 
(772). 

Compound present participles, in French, generally dispense with 
the auxiliary etre, to be. Therefore, instead. of saying: Etant con- 
vaincu de crime, il fut puni, with conciseness, clearness, and the 
same meaning (724), say: 
Convaincu de crime, il fut puni, Convicted of crime, he was punished. 



ADVERBS IN THE TWO LANGUAGES. 591 

Before gerunds, in French, the preposition en is frequently dropped. 

. Apprenant a vaincre leurs passions, les In learning to overcome their passions, 
hommes en deviennent meilleurs, men become better. 

In the preceding example, the preposition en is dropped before 
the present participle apprenant. En preceding deviennent is a pro- 
noun, answering w pour cela (377, 397, 415, 420). 

For the syntax of this part of speech, see No. 765 and following. 

Past Participle. 

1231. There is no analogy between the two languages in the syn- 
tax of past participles. We therefore refer learners to No. 773 and 
following; simply remarking that in compound tenses of the infini- 
tive mode, past participles are subject to rules 776, 777, etc. 

Ayant obtenu une permission, nous Having obtained permission, we went in, 

entrames, 

Les ayant vus partir, nous partimes Having seen them depart, we set out 

aussi, also. 

Ne les ayant pas trouves, nous retour- Not having met them, we returned. 

names, 

Apres les avoir reconnus, nous les salu- After having recognized them, toe saluted 

ames, them. 



CHAPTER THIRTY-SECOND. 
Adverbs in the Two Languages. 

1232. For the syntax of this indeclinable part of speech we refer 
to No. 802 and following ; or to the syntax of substantives, when ad- 
verbs are used substantively in French. 

To express comparisons between two verbs, plus, moins, do not 
admit of the forms of the determinate article, employed in English 
cases. 

Plus j'etudie, plus j'apprends, The more I study, the more I learn, 

Moins j'etudie, moins j'avance, The less I study, the less I progress. 

Used with reference to time, moins, less, answers to before, in 
English. 

II est midi moins un quart. It is a quarter before twelve. 



592 GRAMMAR. 

La ou, there where, is a vicious expression constituting a pleonasm 
which should be avoided. In the two languages, say: 

C'est let que nous allons, It is there that we are going ; 

not: C'est Id oil nous allons, It is there where we go (814). 

Prepositions in the two Languages. 

1233* A and de are generally used before determinate substan- 
tives, — viz.: substantives followed by complements limiting their 
signification (535), and preceded by the forms of the article or deter- 
minative adjectives. 

The} T are also placed before proper names, or common substantives 
used indeterminately. 

Nous allons a la ville, et vous etes a la We go to town, and you are in the coun- 

campagne, try. 

Vous allez de Paris a Versailles, You go from Paris to Versailles. 

De soldat a soldat, ou soldat a soldat, From soldier to soldier. 

Here, the preposition a signifies to, in English; de corresponds 
v?\th. fr 077i. 

In French, en, dans, prepositions, have different offices, though with 
the same signification (824). The first always precedes indetermi- 
nate substantives, except where it has the meaning of pendant; the 
second, on the contrary, is used before determinate substantives. 

En campagne, en ville, en voiture, en In action, in town, in a carriage, in 

prison, jail. 

Dans la cauipagne, dans la ville, In the country, in town. 

En Fan dix, en cette occasion, en In the year ten, on that occasion, during 

son absence, his absence. 

In the last example we might replace en by pendant, and say : 
Pendant Tan dix, pendant cette occasion, pendant son absence. 

En campagne is an idiomatic expression meaning in action, seek- 
ing for something. A la campagne, in the country (875). 

Unless expressed by special names, times for appointments take no 
prepositions in French. 

Venez lundi ou mardi, Come on Monday or Tuesday. 

Nous viendrons a. la Noel, We will come at Christmas. 

Followed by determinate substantives or personal pronouns, an- 
swering in English to at the house, at home, among, the preposition 
chez, in French, indicates residence. 



CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 593 

In some cases, referring to persons, it answers to ivith (1016). 

Cet enfant est chcz son pere, That child lives at his father's, 

Vous etes chez-moi, chez-vous, chez- You are at my house, at home, at our 

nous, house. 

L'esclavage "6tait en usage chez les Slavery was in use among the Romans. 

romains, ' 

Chez lui, parler est un grand defaut, Talking, icith him, is a great defect. 

In the two languages prepositions may be understood before in- 
direct complements. 

J'ai dormi toute la nuit, I slept the whole night. 

The preposition pendant in French, or during in English, is under- 
stood. 

For the syntax of prepositions, see No. 822 and following. 

As we have already remarked, corresponding French and English 
verbs often use different prepositions (1176). 



Conjunctions in both Languages. 

1234. Que conjunction must not be confounded with que pro- 
noun (847). The first connects the incidental proposition with the 
principal. Representing subjects of sentences, the last requires the 
agreement of participles combined with avoir, when placed before 
them in French sentences (777). 

Que nous iraporte qu'ils y aient ete ? What do we care if they have been there? 
Les lettres que j'ai Sorites se sont per- TJie letters I wrote have been lost. 
dues, 

In French, with reference to time, the conjunction et, and, answers 
to the word past, in English. 

II est trois heures et demie, It is h a {/"-past three. 

II 6tait environ midi et quinze minutes, It was about fifteen minutes past twelve. 

For the syntax of et, see £fo. 836 and following. 



Interjections in both Languages. 

1235* As remarked in No. 1185, in speaking of the word diable, 
there is no difference between the two syntaxes in this part of speech, 
except such as results from the peculiar genius of each language. 

1*236. English and French express the cries of animals by the 
following terms : 






:mar. 



?eaux chantent et graxouillent. 
La pie caquette, le perroquet p.\: 
Le merle siffle. 
La colombe roucoule, 
g 6 niit, 
| chante, ~ 

La dir 

■ croasse. et la grenouille 

Le oh aboie et hv i 

Le chat miaule et fait le rouet^ 
Le loop hurle, 
Le renard glapit, 

ire, 

;ne, 
lieval hennit (959), 
L'ane brail E 

Le bceuf, la vache et le yean beuglent, 
Le tanreau — la mer, niugit, 
n rugit, 
if brame, 
L 'enfant vagit, 
L'homme parle, crie, 



The magpie chatters, ike parrot talk*. 
J%* blackwird mhtmOe*. 

Tke dove coo*. 

H i •-.. ff e dam c: pa 

Tke cock crow. 

The turkey duck*. 

The crow (or rarem) and frog croak. 

The dog bark* and novl*. 

The cat mews and purr*. 

The wolf hotel*. 

The fox | :->■*. 

7 : ■: '.- ■■■ ' . --"■ :.'.':/. 

The ta -'■:■: tiww. 

The hog grunt*. 

Thm km neigh* 

The a** brag*. 

The oar, co«r, uim/ calf low. 

The bull bellow*, the sea roar*. 

The liom roar*. 

The leer weUomm. 

lie Icag crie*. 

M ■ . fit i h ."' ■ * .' rex : sea. 



123T. Proverbs, or common sayings, answering to one another in 

jes. 



>nd a demi-mot, 
Cbarite bien ordonnee commence par 

sourenir, 
On onblie bien rite les absents (667), 
Ce qni -dent de la flute s'en retourne 

an tambour, 
Qui trop embrasse mal etreint, 

vrice est la source de tons les 



minx, 

L"bomme propose et Bieu C~ 

Chacun eat ouTrier de sa fortune (669), 

Tn aulheni zr -'.rz: ;^~s:5 seal, 
B ne faut pas craindre de donner un 

oeuf pour un boeuf, 
Celui que Dieu aide fait mieux que Is 

Sons un mechant manteau il j a som- 
an bon buveur, 
Qui ne s'arantnre n'a ni cneral ni 
mule, 

>cat mauvais Toisin 
trop aimerlfhand on en menrt, 
Qui aime Martin aime son chien. 
Qui prete a ses amis perd sonrent 



A word to the wise i* sufficient. 
C%ai ifj kyu w afl Isaac, 

,-, . ..- ;.;--._ -■ ■ --' --•;-,-. 
£tja*ffj <;■-.?. Bsatfej am, 

Grasp aU, lose aVL 

Covetomsnem i* the root of all evil. 

Hunger is the best *auce. 

Ever* mam is the architect of his own 
fortsme. 

He i* a fool that will mot give an egg 

for am ox. 
Hemmmu -:-: imfj» dum IiIssf tihmm mm 

sar | n t • **. 
A tattered cloak mag cover m goad 

drinker. 
B*m\*mm acaiare, aodbaaj nmmm. 



Love me little, lame me long. 
Love me, lore mg dog. 

I'.i : - ■ •-> •: ' \ /-.?• "". 7.'. r: : :r\ 



PROVERBS. 



595 



Le poltron n'obtiendra jamais belle et 

bonne dame a, la fois, 
Le trop meme dans le bien ne vaut 

rien (925), 
Qui ne dit mot consent, 
Les honneurs changent les moaurs, 
Argent comptant porte medecine 

(555), 
La guerison n'est pas si prompte que 

la blessure, 
Chat echaude craint l'»eau froide, 
Bonne renommee vaut mieux que 

ceinture doree, 
Chacun cherche son semblable, 
Les fous donnent des festins, et les 

sages les mangent, 
Acquiers bonne renommee et dors la 

giasse matinee, 
Si tu veux prendre du poisson, peche 

au lieu le plus profond, 
II fait bon pecher en eau trouble, 
L'oisivete est la source de tous les 

maux, 
Les rois ont les mains longues, 
Peu de biens peu de soins, 
Marie ton fils qu%nd tu voudras, et ta 

fille quand tu pourras, 
Plusieurs mains avancent l'ouvrage, 
Necessity n'a pas de loi, ou ventre 

affame n'a pas d'oreilles (555), 
Rien n'est impossible pour qui a bonne 

envie, 
Nul ne sait si bien ou le Soulier le 

blesse que celui qui le porte, 
Nouveaux rois nouvelles lois, 
Une brebis galeuse gate tout le trou- 

peau, 
II n'est pire eau que l'eau qui dort, 
Familiarite engendre mepris, 
Faire d'une pierre deux coups, 
II est bon d'avoir deux cordes a son 

arc, 
Ce qu'on apprend des le berceau dure 

jusqu'au tombeau, 
De Tabondance du coeur la bouche 

parle, 
Ou il n'y a rien le roi perd ses droits, 

Qui veut battre son chien trouve assez 

de batons, 
Habile a table habile a tout, 
On ne saurait faire boire Pane qui 

n'a pas soif (1074), 
Assez boit qui a deuil, 
Bonne mule mauvaise bete, 



Faint heart never won fair lady. 

Too much of a good thing is good for 



Silence gives consent. 

Honors change manners. 

Ready money is as good as physic. 

A man is not so soon healed as hurt. 

A burnt child fears the fire. 

A good name is better than riches. 

Birds of a feather flock together. 
Fools make feasts, and wise men eat 

them. 
Get a good name and go to sleep. 

The best fishing is in the deepest water. 

There is good fishing in muddy water. 
Idleness is the source of all evil. 

Kings have long arms. 

Little wealth, little sorrow. 

Marry your son when you will, and 

your daughter when you can. 
Many hands make light work. 
Necessity has no laws, or there is no 

arguing with hungry people. 
Nothing is impossible to a willing mind. 

Nobody knows so well where the shoe 
pinches as he who wears it (1185). 
New kings, new laws. 
One scabby sheep mars the whole flock. 

The still sow sucks up all the grass.** 

Familiarity breeds contempt. 

Kill two birds with one stone. 

It is good to have two strings to one's 

bow. 
What is bred in the bone will never be 

out of the flesh. 
What the heart thinks, the mouth 

speaks. 
Where nothing is to be had, the king 

loses his rights. 
It is an easy matter to get a stick to 

beat a dog. 
Quick at meals, quick at work. 
A man may lead his horse to water, 

but can't make him drink. 
Excessive sorrow is exceedingly dry. 
A good housewife is commonly no sheep. 



51 



596 GRAMMAR. 



DIFFERENT OFFICES OF WORDS IN FRENCH. 

Substantives, or Nouns. 

1238. Words do not depend entirely on their spelling for their 
signification, but on the part they perform in speech. Therefore, 
substantives cease to be such, and become adjectives, when used as 
qualifiers in connection with other nouns (328). 

II Stait patre, et il devini roi, He was a shepherd) and he became a 

king. 
Elle etait reine et devint esclave, She was a queen, and she became a slave. 

In such cases, adjectives are used in French when indeterminate 
substantives are employed in English (1184). 

The same remark holds good with determinative adjectives, pos- 
sessive pronouns, verbs, adverbs, or any other class of*words. 

Ces quatre sont mal faits (590), Those fours are badly made, 

Les notres se sont mieux battus (654), Ours fought best. 

Le boire et le manger Font rendu Drinking and eating made him sick. 

malade (457), 

Le dessus de marbre de cette table est That marble table-top is broken. 

casse (802), 

Avec des si et des mais on repoiid a With ifs and buts every thing may be 

tout (525), answered. 

As to personne indefinite pronoun, and personne common substan- 
tive, see Nos. 672, 673. 

Determinate article le t la, les, the (536, 537). 

1239* The forms le, la, les, answering to the, precede common 
substantives used in a limited sense, — determinate in French ; com- 
bined with the preposition de, those forms, having a partitive mean- 
ing, answer to some. 

I/homme qui travaille, The man working. 

La femme qui parle, The woman talking. 

Le soleil qui brille, The sun shining. 

La terre qui tourne, The earth turning. 

La jument qui hennit (959), The mare neighing. 

The complements qui travaille, qui parle, etc., require the use of 
the determinate article (535). 



DIFFERENT OFFICES OF WORDS IN FRENCH. 597 

* Pronouns le, la, les, him, her, them, it. 

1240. Connected with verbs, either preceding or following them, 
the forms le, la, les, are pronouns. Substitutes for nouns, they re- 
present persons or things previously named, and stand as comple- 
ments (71). 

He mark. — Those personal pronouns are always direct objects, as 
shown in the following examples. 

Je le vois (le livre). Je l'honore, I see it (the booh). I honor him or her. 

Je le vois (l'homme), I see him (the man). 

Vous la reconnaissez (la femme), You recognize her (the woman). 

Reconnaissez-la do. Recognize her do. 

1241. Representing a member or part of sentence, le or V is a 
pronoun, answering to cela, it (789, 639). Standing for an adjective, 
it answers to so. 

Etez-vous malade? Are you sick? 

Je le suis, / am so. 

La lettre arriva ainsi qu'on Tavait The letter arrived as it had been writ- 
ecrit, ten. 

The forms du, de V, de la, des, indicate generally a determinate 
signification in the substantives which they precede (536). Answer- 
ing to quelque, un peu, or some, a few, they may stand before sub- 
stantives of & partitive meaning (537). 

Je mange du pain, / eat some bread. 

Nous avons de /'argent, We have some money. 

Je bois de la biere, I drink beer, or some beer. 

Nous possedons des amis, We have some friends. 

Placed before substantives preceded by qualifiers, the preposition 
de, answering to quelque, or some, a few, announces also a partitive 
signification in substantives. It precedes direct objects. 

Nous avons de bons amis, We have some few good friends. 

In the above examples, du, de V, de la, des, de, replacing determi- 
native adjectives, may be considered as such. 

Qualifying adjectives. 

1242. Qualifying adjectives become substantives when their office 
is not to qualify, but to represent substantial beings. Used as deter- 
minate nouns, they are preceded by the forms of the determinate 
article. 



598 



GRAMMAR. 



Le malade et la nialade sont mieux, T7ie sick man and the $kk woman are 

better. 
Le riche est niort, et le pauvre est Tlie rich man is dead, and the poor 

gu6ri, man is alive. 

La sainte nous exaucera dans nos The saint will grant us our requests. 

prieres, 

Remark. — In those examples, preceding common substantives, le, 
la, etc., answer to the (638, 639). Connected with adjectives, in- 
variable in form, le or V answers to so, not usually expressed in 
English (1241). 



Monsieur, etes-vous 




: Je le suis, Sir, are you sick? 




' I am so. 


malade? 


TO 




TO 




Madame, etes-vous 


■ 1 1 


Je le suis, Madam, are you 




- £ - 

TO 


/am so. 


malade ? 


sick ? 




Messieurs, §tes- 


< 


Nous le Gentlemen, are you 




We are so, 


vous malades? 




sommes, sick? 




„ 



En pronoun, en adverb, en preposition, en conjunction. 

1*243. Representing persons or things, answering to de lui, d'elle, 
d'eux, d'elles, de cela, of him, of her, of them, of it. En is a pronoun 
(377) representing indirect objects. (799). 

Used for persons, speaking of friends or enemies, say: 



J'en parle, 
Nous en avons, 
En avez-vous ? 



standing 
for 



' Je parle de lui, d'elle, 
Nous avons de cela, 
Avez-vous de cela ? 



Used for things, speaking of fruits, etc., say: 



.Fen parle, 
Nous en avons, 
En avez-vous ? 



En 

standing 
for 



De ceci, de cela, 

De cela, de ces choses, 

De cela, 



be 

- J E 

© 

TO 

d 

d 



Je parle de mon- 
sieur, de madam e. 
Nous avons des 

amis. 
Avez-vous des en- 

nemis ? 



Je parle de ceci, 

de cela. 
Nous avons du 

fruit. 
Avez-vous des 

fruits ? 



In the preceding examples the pronoun en always refers to persons 
or things previously named (383). 

Remark. — In such cases, en, de cela, though pronouns indirect ob- 
jects, seem to correspond with some, direct object, understood in Eng- 
lish. 



Avez-vous des enfants? J' en ai, 
Literally answering to J'ai de cela, 



Have you any children? I have (some). 
Ellipsis of / have some children, or 
some of them. 

In either French or English, the above sentence is elliptical. Quel- 
ques uns, direct object, is understood in French; of them, indirect 
object, is understood also in English. 



DIFFERENT OFFICES OF WORDS IN FRENCH. 599 

1244* Showing the relation between two words in a sentence, 
standing for to, in English, when motion is to be expressed, en is a 
preposition (413). Referring to seclusion or confinement, it answers 
to in. Sometimes it is used before determinate substantives, instead 
of pendant, during (825). 

Je vais en France, en Espagne, en / am going to France, to Spain, to 

Afrique, Africa. 

Nous sommes en prison, en voiture, We are in jail, in a carriage. 

En Tan huit cent de notre ere, During the year eight hundred of our 

era. 

1245. Used in reference to places, left or to be left, en means de 
Id. Answering to away, from there, in English, it is an adverb. 

Allez-vous a Paris ? Non, j'en viens, Are you going to Paris t No, I come 

from thence. 
H s'en fuit. Allez-vous-en, He is going away. Go away. 

lis s'en iront, They will go away. 

1246. With the meaning of comme, answering to as or like, in 
English, en must be called a conjunction (688). 

Vous parlez en homme, et vous agissez You talk like a man and act like a 

en enfant, child. 

II s'est conduit en brave et en habile He behaved like a brave and skilful 

capitaine, captain. 

Que relative pronoun, que adverb, que conjunction, que (781) prepo- 
sitive expression, answering to pendant que. 

124*7. Answering to lequel, laquelle, whom, which, with re- 
ference either to persons or things, que is a relative pronoun. 

I/homme que vous voyez (383), The man (whom) you see. 

La chose que vous admirez, The thing (which) you admire. 

Lequel des deux freres preferez-vous ? Which of the two brothers do you pre- 
fer? 

Always expressed in French, whom, which, answering to que, need 
not be expressed in English. 

1248* Used for combien, answering to how much, how many, the 
word que becomes an adverb (411). 

Que de maux nous affligent, How many evils afflict us ! 

Que d'argent ils ont perdu, How much money they have lost ! 

Que de gloire vous avez acquise (778), How much glory you have acquired! 

1249* Connecting two propositions, que is a conjunction, answer- 
ing to that, generally understood in English (485). 

51* 



600 GRAMMAR. 

B faut que je parle, I must speak. 

Aimez que Ton vous reprenne, Be glad to be reproved. 

Je crois qu'il vient, / believe he is coming. 

See No. 50 for infinitives used as substantives, and No. 802 for 
adverbs used substantively. 

Ou pronoun, ou adverb, ou conjunction. 

1250. Corresponding with lequel, laquelle, whom, which, in Eng- 
lish, oil is ranked among pronouns (374). 

La ville oil nous rlsidons est agreable, The town ice live in is agreeable. 
La voie ou nous marchons est sure, The way we follow is certain. 

Le but ou nous tendons est eloigne, The thing we aim at is distant. 

Referring to places, oil, becomes an adverb, answering to where, in 
English (814). 

Ou allez-vous ? D'ou venez-vous ? Where are you going ? Whence come 

you ? 

1251. Connecting two propositions, without grave accents, ou an- 
swers to or, in English. It is then a conjunction (419). 

Donnez-nous ceci ou cela, Give us this or that. 

Etre bien ou mal sont choses diffe*- To be well and to be ill are different 
rentes, things. 

Pour preposition, pour answering to afin de, conjunctive 
expression. 

1252. Placed before substantives, signifying as, in English, pour 
is a conjunction, answering to comme. 

lis ont recu leur liberte pour recom- They received their freedom as a re- 

pense, ward. 

Us leur ont donne la liberte, pour les As a reward for their good behavior, 

r§compenser de leur bonne con- they gave them their freedom, 

duite, 

For the different offices of meme, tout, quelque, see Nos. 601, 604, 
606. 

Y pronoun, y adverb (377). 

1253. Y, pronoun, is used for both persons and things. Y, ad- 
verb, refers only to places. 

Y songiez-vous a cette fille cherie? Were you thinking of that beloved 

daughter ? 

Y a-t-on songe a mon affaire? Have they thought of my business? 

Y etiez-voug a Paris a cette epoqne ? Were yon in Paris at that time? 



DIFFERENT OFFICES OF WORDS IN FRENCH. 601 

For indefinite pronouns, see No. 370, for cases where they become 
indefinite adjectives. 

The different offices of words, changing their nature and signifi- 
cation, will demonstrate the importance of using general dictionaries 
instead of vocabularies referring to special works. The great fault 
of limited vocabularies, though adequate to the purpose in view, is 
their tendency to confine the learner to the contracted study of a few 
words. Without materials, and denied the privilege of choosing 
between several synonymous expressions, his judgment and pro- 
gress are restricted and impeded. It must be remembered that 
words and expressions are the first elements of speech, and that to 
reduce the sphere of their practice is just so far to limit the means 
of instruction. A judicious use of dictionaries will be always a 
great step towards the extended practice of languages. 

It must hence be obvious to any one that methods, which assume 
to impart a practical knowledge of living languages by means of 
vocabularies of a few pages, are not likely to make good their pro- 
mises. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



The following figures refer to the numbers heading each paragraph of the 
method, unless followed by the word "page." In that case they refer to the 
paging. 



A, de, S64. 

A, on, 865. 

Abandonner, 1089. 

Abonder, 865 bis. 

A cause que, 846. 

Accents, 428. Acute, 429. Grave, 430. 
Circumflex. 434. 

Accord. See Adjective, 556 and follow- 
ing: Verb. 679 and following; Par- 
ticiple, 765, 773, etc. 

Accoucheur, accoucheuse, 11S5. 

Achever, 1115. 

Actif, or transitif, verb, 7S. 

Adjectif. Its definition, 319. Two 
kinds of adjectives, 321. 

Adjectif determinatif. 35S. Its differ- 
ence from the article, 358 bis. Four 
kinds of determinative adjectives, 
359. Xumeral, 360. Xumeral car- 
dinal, 361. Xumeral ordinal, 362. 
Demonstrative, 363. Possessive, 
366,1199. Indefinite, 370. Syntax, 
555 ter and following. 

Adjectif qualijicati/. What it is, 319. 
When called verbal adjective, 324. 
"When called compound, 327. Used 
substantively, 330. Formation of 
the feminine, 332. Formation of 
plural, 34S and following. Agree- 
ment of adjectives, 556 and follow- 
ing. Adjectives used adverbially, 
568. Compound adjectives, 572 and 
following. Adjectives never govern 
substantives, 575. Spelling of ad- 
jectives when the first is qualified 



by the second, 577. Adjectives used 
only for persons, 578. Others used 
only for things, 578. Placed before 
or after substantives, 579. Changing 
the signification of substantives ac- 
cording to the place they occupy be- 
fore or after nouns, 580, 1191. Ge- 
neral use of adjectives in the two 
languages, 1190 and following. 
Complements of adjectives, 1193. 

Adverb. Its definition, 390. Why it 
has no complements, 391. See Locu- 
tions. Its syntax, 802 and following. 
Adverbs in the two languages, 1232. 

Age, 1185. 

Ah! ha! Their different signification, 
849. 

Aider, 865 bis. 

Aieul, 299. 

Aigle, 507, 508. 

'Aiguille, 1185. 

Air, gender in adjectives governed by 
that word, 866. 

Alentour, 803. 

Aller, aller trouver, 1076, 1079. S'en 
aller, 1148. 

Amand.e, Amende, 1185. 

Amnistie. See Armistice. 

Amour, 504. Pour Vamour de Dieu, 
1185. 

An, Annee, 505 bis. 

Analyse. Logical parsing, 452 and 
following; models of logical par- 
sing, 487. 

Ane, 1185. 

603 



604 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Animaux et leur chair, 1185. 

Anoblir, Ennoblir, 867. 

Antecedant. What it is, 385. 

Apostrophe. What it indicates, 436. 
In what cases it is employed, 437 
and following. 

Appendix, 1238 and following. 

^.pprocher s', se rapprocher, 1169. 

A raison de, 1184. 

Argent, 1185. 

Argenter, 1093. 

Armistice, Amnistie, 868. 

Article. Its definition, 306. Its 
changes, 312. When used, 535. Its 
use or dropping before substantives 
of a partitive meaning, 537. When 
not used, 541 and following. Its 
use with plus, mieux, moins, 548. 
Repetition of the article, 550. Ar- 
ticle in the two languages, 1186. 

Asseoir, 1170. 

Assurer, 869, 1092. 

A travers, au travers, 822. 

Attarder, s', 1087. 

Atteindre, 870. 

Atterrer, 1136. 

Attraper, 870 bis. 

Attribut. Its signification, 456. When 
simple, 470. Compound, 471. Com- 
plex, 473. Incomplex, 472. 

Aucun, 598. 

Auparavant, 803. 

Aupres. See Pres de. 

Atissi. See Si, 

Aussi, nonplus, 871. 

Autant. See Tant. 

Auxiliaires. Their uses, 66, 160. Their 
conjugation: avoir, pages 5, 8, 11; 
etre, pages 15, 18, etc. Their syn- 
tax, 715. 

Avant de, d moins de, 872. 

Avoir. See Idiomes. 

Avoir mal, avoir du mal, 995, 996. 

Avoir pour un morceau de pain, 988. 

Baigner, promener, coucher, 873. 

Balancer, 1097. 

Bambins, 1185. 

Barbe, 1185. 

Bdtonner, 1094. 

Battre la campagne, 1094. 

Beauconp, 874. 

Beau diseur, 1185. 

BSnir has two participles, 145. 

Bilre. See Cercueil. 

Billet, 1185. 

Blanchir, 1095. 

Boire un canon, 1140. 



Botte, 1185. 
Bouchonner, 1096. 
Bourse, 1185. 
Boute-selle, 1165. 

Campagne — a la, en, 875. 

Capable, susceptible, 876. 

Caraciere, 1183. 

Castel. See chateau. 

Ce. Its use before etre, *o 6e, 695 and 
following. 

Ce, cet, ces, 364 and following. 

Cedille, 439. 

Celui, ceux, celle, celles. Their syn- 
tax, 649. 

Celui-ci, celle-ci, etc., 651. 

Cent, how spelled, 583. 

Cercueil, 1185. 

Certain, 605 bis. 

Chacun, followed by son, sa, ses, etc., 
668. 

Change, donner le, 870 bis. 

Changer, 1141. 

Chanter, 1102. 

Charger, 1099. 

CTmsse, 1185. 

Chasser, 1108. » 

Chaque, 600. 

Chateau, 1185. 

Cheminer, chevaucher, 1165. 

CAevew, 1184. 

(7A<?z, answering to among, 1016. 

CW, has two plurals, 297. 

Chiquer, 1132 bis. 

CfocAe, 1185. 

Clocher, 1101. 

Coincidences and dissxdences between 
the two languages, 1178 bis. 

Color er, color ier, 877. 

Commencer, 878. 

Com muniqu er, 1100. 

Comparaisons, 407 and following. 

Comparer, 879. 

Complement. What it is. Two kinds, 
direct and indirect, 69 and follow- 
ing. 

Compter. See Esperer. 

Conditionnel. What it is, 39. Its use 
in the two languages, 1224. Its 
use in French, 726. 

Conjonction. Its definition, 419. See 
Locutions. Its syntax, 836. Its 
uses in the two languages, 1234. 

Conjugaison8. What they are, and how 
divided according to their endings 
in the present infinitive, 60. Con- 
jugation of verbs interrogatively, 
167. Conjugation of passive verbs, 



GENERAL INDEX. 



605 



251. How to render those verbs 
interrogatively, 252 and following. 
Conjugation of neuter verbs, 258. 
Reflective, 262. Unipersonal, 264 
bis. Observations on verbs conju- 
gated interrogatively, 179 ter and 
following. Observations on verbs 
ending in cer, 106 ; ending in ger, 
107 ; ending in eler, eter, 108 ; in 
ier, yer, 110. Endings of the four 
conjugations, 121. Continuation of 
the same, 126, 133 and following. 

Connaissance, 1185. 

Connaissement, 1185. 

Connaitre, 1073, 1163. 

Consommer, consumer, 880. 

Co?isonne8, 7. 

Conttnir, 1098. 

Contraction, 315. 

Convenir, with avoir or etre, 720. Cou- 
cher, 1168. 

Coucher enjoue. Coucheur-bon, mau- 
vat8, 1168. 

Couple, Its gender, 510. 

Courir, 1121. 

Cours, 1185. 

Cris des animaux in the two languages, 
1236. 

Croiser, 1113 bis. 

Groque-note, croquemort, 1185. 

Crodte, 1185. 

Davantage, 803. Dans, 824. 

Be, 823, 864, 881. Decoudre-en, 1185. 
Decouvrir, 1103. 

Dedans, dehors, 802. 

Dejeuner, diner, 882. 

Delice, 506. 

De loin en loin, 883. 

De longue main, 883. 

Demain, hier, 884. 

Demander, etc., 1112. 

Demeurer, 721. 

Demi, 564. 

Demon. See Diable. 

Demonter, 1120. 

Depecer, 1104. 

Depenser, 1104. 

Deranger, 1185. 

Derober, 1105. 

Descendre, 1137 bis. 

Dessus, dessous, 802. When substan- 
tives, 1238. 

De suite, tout-de-suitc, 811. 

DeuxiZme. See Second. 

Decenir, 1088. 

Devoir. Observation on its past par- 
ticiple, 172. 



Diable, 1185. 

Digne, indigne, 885. 

Diphthongue, 14. 

Disputer, 886. 

Donner dans le panneau, 1134. 

Donner sur, dans, 1104, 1134. 

Dont, d'oh, 663. 

Dormir, 1153. 

Durant, pendant, 887. 

Durant que, 846. 

j£. Three kinds, e mute, £ closed, I 
open, 10. 

Eau fraiche, Eau douce, 1185. 

Echanger, 1144. 

Echapper, 722. 

E curie. See Etable. 

Eh! he! 851. 

Elision. What it is, 23, 313. 

Ellipse, 854. When allowable, 855. 

Eminent, imminent, 888. 

Emporter, Vemporter, 1147 ter. 

Emprunter, 889. 

^», 415. 

Encourir, 1150. 

Enfant. Its gender, 511. 

Ennoblir. SeeAnoblir, Ennuyant, En- 
nuyeux, 890. 

Ennuyant, ennuyeux, 890. 

Ennuyer. See Ver&e Pronominal. 

Entendre le son d'une cloche, entendre 
son interet, 1163. 

Entendre raillerie, entendre la raillerie, 
891. 

Entendre, s\ 1163, 1107. 

Entendre son affaire, 1074. 

Entonner, 1106. 

Entrailles, 1185. 

j&H«re, parmi, 826, 826 bis. 

Envier, porter envie, 892. 

Epouffer de rire, 1156. 

Epousailles, epouser, 1137 bis. 

Epouser, 1137 bis. 

Equipage, 1185. 

Equiper, 1114. 

Esperer, promcttre, compter, 893. 

Jk, must not connect synonymous ex- 
pressions, 894. Connecting two 

'" imperatives, 1160, 1228. 

Et, ni. Their difference, 836. Their 
use, 836 bis, 837. 

Etable, 1185. 

Etre. See Idiom es. 

Etre, oiler. Their use, 895. 

Etre rendu, 1160 bis. 

Etre trempe comme ane soupe, 1128. 

Eviter, 896. 

Excepts, 774. 



606 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Fxcuser, 706. 
Fxpirer, 723. 
Expressions vicieuses, 987. 

Faillir, 1085. 

Faire. Observations on its uses, 897. 
Fa ire. See Idiomes. 
Faire large courroie, 1034. 
Faire le, faire lay 1036. 
Faire un mariage, 1137 bis. 
Femelle, 1185. 
Femmelette, 1185. 
Feu. Its syntax, 567. 
Fiancailles, 1137 bis. 
Fieu, 1185. 

Figures de syntaxe, 852 and following. 
/Vfer, 1111. 
Fixer, 898. 
Flairer, fleurcr, 899. 
Fldner, 1165. 
Flcurir, 150. 
-Flatter, 1110. 
Fondre, 1097 
Foudre. Its gender, 513. 
JWer, 1109. 
Frapper, 1115. 
JFYgf, 1185. 

Futur. In the two languages, 1224. 
Futur. What expresses the future, 

59, 162 bis. 
Futur anterieur, 59. * 

£a^e, 1185. 

Gagner, 1113. 

Gorgon, 1185. 

Genre, 282. Of two sorts, 282 and 
following. 

Gens. Gender of adjectives qualify- 
ing, 514. 

G7acer, 1112. 

Graisser, 1112. 

Grammaire. Its definition, 1. 

tfre/e, 1168. 

Grossier comme un pain d'orge, 1195. 

J7. When mute or aspirate, 12. List 
of words beginning with h aspirate, 
963. 

Hair, 149. 

Harnacher, 1114. 

Heure, 1185. 

Heurter, 1115. 

Hommasse, 1185. 

Hymne, 515. 

Idiomes. Avoir, 988. Etre, 1008. 
Faire, 1026 and following. Mettre, 



1041 bis. Prendre, 1046 bis. Tenir, 
1060 bis, etc. 

Ignorer, 1116. 

Imaginer, s'imaginer, 900. 

Imiter Vexemple, 901. 

Imminent, eminent, 888. 

Imparfait of the indicative mode, 54; 
of the subjunctive, 42, 751 

Imp Sr at if, 40. 

Imposer, en imposer, 902. 

Indicatif, 37. 

Indigne. See Digne. 

Infecter, in/ester, 903. 

Injinitif. What it is, 49. Tenses 
formed with the present of the in- 
finitive, 115. Its syntax, 754. In- 
finitives in the two languages, 1228. 

Insulter, 904. 

Inter dire, 1117. 

Interjection, 422. When forming im- 
plicit propositions, 503. Its syn- 
tax, 849. 

Inversion, 861. 

Jatte, cul-de-jatte, 1185. 
Jeter, 108, 1127. 
Joindre, 905. 
Jouer, 1104. 
Jour, 1185. 
Jurer, juron, 1092. 

Ld est, Id sont, 417. 

Laisser, 1088. 

Ze, fa, les, pronouns representing 
nouns or adjectives, 638. Use of 
the pronoun le, 906, 1239, etc. 

Lecture, 1185. 

Le pen, requiring or not requiring 
agreement, 702, 798. 

Lettres. What they are, 4. 

Lever, 1119. Lire dans, lire sur, 907. 

Livre, 1185. 

Locutions adverbiales, 406 ; preposi- 
tives, 418; conjonctives, 421. 

Louer, 1118. 

Lux, leur, eux, elle, elles. Their syn- 
tax, 637. 

L'un l f autre, Vun et Vautre, 689. 

Lunette, 1185. 

Madame, Monsieur, etc., 368, 1184. 

3faison, 1185. 

Male, 1185. 

Malgre que, 846. 

Manege, 1185. 

Marcher, 1091. 

Marcher la loi d la main, 1091. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



607 



Marier, 1137 bis. 

Matin, mdtin, 1185. 

Matinal, matineux, matinier, 908. 

Meier, 909. Se miler, 1156. 

Mime. Its syntax, 601. 

Memoir e, 1185. 

Mener, 1081 bis. 

Menton de galoche, 1185. 

Merci f 1175 bis. 

Mettre. See Idiomes. 

Miche, midi, 1185. 

Mieux. See PJ««. 

J/t'Me. Its spelling, 586, 587. 

Mine, 1032, 1185. 

Mode, 35. Five in number, 36. Per- 
sonal or impersonal, 50. 

Mon, ma, mes, when replaced by the 
determinate article, 592. 

Monnaie, monture, 1185. 

Monosyllabes, 15. 

Monter, 1121. 

Montr er, 1074. 

Mots. Of what they are made, 3. 
How many kinds in speech, 16. 
Which are variable, 18. Which in- 
variable, 19. 

Moustache, 1185. 

Mur, muraille, 11*85. 

Nager, 1122. 

Ne. See Negation, 

Negation, 163. Its uses, 815 and fol- 
lowing. 

Neutre. Verbs, 87. 

Nombre, 285. Two numbers, 286, 
287; in verbs, 33. 

Nommer, 1123. 

Nom-propre, 518. How written in the 
plural number, 519. 

Nu, va-nu-pieds, 562, 563. 

Obliger, 1124. 

Observer. When preceded by /aire, 

910, 1125. 
Occuper, 8 y , 929. 
(Eil. Its plural, 298. 
Oh, ho, 850. 
On, 665. 
Onze, 368, 1195. 
Orgue, 506. 
Orient, 427. 

Orthographe, 424 and following. 
Oter, 1084. 

Ou. Used instead of d, 865, 911, 912. 
Owate, 368, 1195. 
Oublier, oublier de, 913. 
Ourdir, 1126. 
Ouvrir, ouvrir la porte, 1095. 



52 



Pcrni, 1185. Gagne pain, 1185. 

Parce que, par ce que, 840. 

Parcourir, 1121, 1140. 

Pardonner, 706. 

Parenthese, 451. 

Parmi. See Entre. 

Partager, 1130. 

Participe present, 267. Its derivative 
tenses, 116. Its syntax, 765. Its 
uses in the two languages, 1230. 

Participer a — de, 914. 

Participes, 265 bis. Past participle, 
269. Its derivative tenses, 119. 
Syntax, 773. 

Pas, point. See Negation. 

Passe anterieur, b7. 

Passe defini, 55. 

Passe indejini, 56. 

Passer, 1113 bis. 

Passi/s-verbes, 79. 

Pa^rer, 1112. 

Peaw, 1185. 

PecAer, 1128. 

Pendant. See Durant. 

Pendule, 1185. 

Perruque, 1185. 

Personne, 671, 673. 

Personnes, 34, 372. 

Petrifier, 1129. 

Pew s'en /aw£, |?eu s'en c«f fallu, etc, 
1086. 

PiW, 1185. 

Pi6*on, 1165. 

Pincer, 1140. 

PiVe, 412. 

Plaindre, 915. 

PJaire, 916. 

Pleonasme, 856. When allowable, 857. 

Plier, ployer, 917. 

P^ms d'tw, 920. 

Plus, mieux, 919. 

Plusque par/ait, 58, 728, 751, 974. 

Plutdt, plus tot, 805. 

Poele, pompe, poil, 1185. 

Polysyllabe, 15. 

Ponctuation, 939 ; % signs, 940; use of 
those signs, 941 and following. 

Porter. Its acceptations, 1066. 

Porter aux anges, 1072. 

Porter envie. See Envier. 

Poser, 1097. 

Powder, 1127. 

Prendre. See Idiomes, 

Prendre garde, 1058. 

Prendre le change, 1052. 

Preposition. Its definition, 413. Com- 
plements, 414. See Locutions, Its 
syntax, 822. 



608 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Prepositions in the two languages, 
1233. 

Prts de, pret d, 918. 

Present. What expresses that tense, 
52. Derivative tenses of the present 
indicative, 119 bis, 726, 748. 

Pret d. See Pres de. 

Preter, tenir la main, 1127. 

Promettre. See Esperer. Promener, 
1165. 

Pronom. Its definition, 371. Five 
different sorts: Personal, 374; De- 
monstrative, 379 ; Possessive, 381 ; 
Relative, 383 ; Indefinite, 386. Pro- 
nouns direct complements, 71. In- 
direct complements, 74. Sometimes 
direct, at others indirect, 73. Syn- 
tax of pronouns, 610. Syntax of 
personal pronouns, 620. Syntax 
of demonstrative pronouns, 640. 
Relative, 655. Indefinite, 665. Per- 
sonal pronouns used to conjugate 
verbs, 21. Pronouns in the two 
languages, 1202. 

Prononciation, 953 and following. 

Proposition. What it is, 453. Of how 
many parts composed when gram- 
matically or logically considered, 
455. Different kinds of propositions, 
475 ; principal absolute, 476*; prin- 
cipal relative, 476 ; incidental deter- 
minative, 481; incidental explana- 
tory, 482. Words binding incidental 
to the proposition they complete, 
478. Complete propositions, 483. 
Elliptic, 484. Implicit, 486. 

Proverbes, 1237. 

Quand, quant, 844, 845. 

Que, 485, 781, 841, 847, 1216. 

Quelconque, 605, 1217. 

Quelque, in one word, 604. 

Quel que, in two words, 604 and follow- 
ing. 

Quelque chose, 516. 

Que nc, 747. 

Quenouille. See Tomber en, 

Quiconque, 635, 1217. 

Quint, 1185. 

Quitter. See Laisser, Abandonner. 

Quoi que, quoique, 842, 843. De quoi, 
667 bis. 

Ramage,*1185. 
Rapport, 922. 
Reconnoitre, 1112. 

Redevoir. Observation on its past 
participle, 172. 



Remercier, 1175 bis. 

Renoncer, 1090. 

Reputation. See Caractire, 

Rester, 1087. 

Retrancher d, 923. 

Reunir, 924. 

Revenir, 1077, 1078. 

Rien, 925. 

Romaine, romanesque,romaniique, 1185 

and following. 
Ruminer, 1132 bis. 

Sabler, 1131. 

Sabot, 1185. 

Sage-femme, 1185. 

Saigner, 926, 1132. 

Saler, 1133. 

Sans, preceded by et and replaced by 
ni, 839. 

Savoir, 1074. 

Savoir dufil d V aiguille, 1185. 

Second, deuxieme, 927. 

Sefaire, 1155. Sefdcher, 1157. 

S'emparer, etc., 1174. 

S'endormir sur le roti, 1153. 

Seoir, 1133. 

S Sparer, 1158. 

Se plaindre de ce qut, se plaindre que, 
915. 

Se rappeler, se souvenir, 921. 

Serment, sarment, 1092 note. 

Servir d rien, servir de rien, 928. 

Se serrer le ventre, 1065. 

Se servir, 1160 bis. 

Si, au88i } 806. 

Signes orthographiques, 425, 426. 

Soi. Its syntax, 634 and following. 

Soit, so it que, 930. 

Son, sa, ses, leur, leurs. When used or 
replaced by the forms of the article, 
596. Their use in the two languages, 
1199. 

Songer, 1128. 

Souris, 1185. 

Spectacle, 1185. 

Subjonctif. What is. that mode, 42. 
Its syntax, 736. In the two lan- 
guages, 1226. 

Substantif. Its definition, 271. Why 
called noun, 271 bis. Common sub- 
stantive, 273. Proper substantive, 
274. Collective substantive,278. Par- 
titive collective, 278. Compound 
substantive, 280. How spelt in the 
plural, 526. Properties in substan- 
tives, 281. Formation of the plural in 
substantives, 289 and following. 
Substantives of a determinate signi- 



GENERAL INDEX. 



609 



fication, 306,307, 1178 bis. Substan- 
tives representing genera, 308 ; spe- 
cies, 309 ; private individuals or 
single things, 310, 1178 bis. Used 
adjectively, 328. Borrowed from 
foreign languages, how written in 
the plural, 522. Having different 
acceptations, 11S5. 

Succomber, 931. 

Succomber sous, succomber d, 931. 

Sujet, 64. What queries it answers, 65. 
Logical subject of sentences, 456. 
When simple, 468. Compound, 469. 
Incomplex, 472. Complex, 473. The 
place it occupies in the two lan- 
guages, 1179. 

Supplier, 932. 

Suppose. Its syntax, 774. 

Susceptible. See Capable. 

Syllabe, 13. 

Syllepse, 860. 

Syntaxe, 452. 

Tant, autant, 806. 

Tarder, 1087. 

Taureau, 1185. 

Temoin, 933. 

Temps. Its three divisions, present, 
past, and future, 51. — They form 
eight tenses, 59 bis. Simple tenses, 
154. Compound, 155. Compound 
tenses using avoir, 156. Compound 
tenses using etre, 157. Primitive 
and derivative tenses, 113 and 
following. Formation of tenses, 115. 
Use of tenses, 726, 746 bis. 

Tenir. See Idiomes. 

Tenir, s'en, 1171. 

Tenter, 1134. 

Terrasser, 1135. 

Terre, par terre, d terre, 934. 

Tirer la langue, Vechelle, 1140. 

Tomber en quenouille, d'accord, en con- 
fusion, 1091. 

Ton. See Air. 

Toucher, 1104. 

Toupet, tour, 11*85. 

Tous les deux, tous deux, 936. 

Tout, 935. Its syntax, 606. 

Tout-d-coup, tout-d'un-coup, 812. 

Tout de suite. See De suite. 

Trait-d' union. Its uses, 443 and fol- 
lowing. 

Trema. Its uses and faulty employ, 
440. 

Trisyllabe, 15. 

Troc pour troc, 1147. 



Trocquer, 1146. 
Tromper, 1161. 
Trompette, 517. 

Un de, un des, 937. 

Un, une, answering to one, a, an, 318. 

Unir, 1137. See Reunir. 

User, 1138. 

Valoir. Its participle, 800. 

Veneneux, Venimeux, 937 bis. 

Venir, 1077, 1078. 

Yerbe. Its definition, 20. Substan- 
tive verb, 27. Adjective verbs, 28. 
Five kinds of adjective verbs, 76 ; 
active or transitive, 77; passive, 79 ; 
neuter or intransitive, 87 ,• pronom- 
inal or reflective, 93, 1147 ter; uni- 
personal or impersonal, 103. Differ- 
ence between active and neuter, 78 
and 89. Modifications in verbs, 32. 
Auxiliary verbs, 66. Irregular verbs, 
1S6. Defective, 186. Functions of 
the verb in logical parsing, 456. 
Verb found in every proposition, 
458. Every verb in personal mode 
must have a subject, and every sub- 
ject must have a verb, 676. Subjects 
of verbs not to be expressed twice, 
678. Agreement of verbs with their 
subjects, 679. Agreement with the 
last subject, 681. Agreement when 
several subjects are joined by comme, 
de meme que, 688. Agreement of 
verbs with Vun V autre, 689. Agree- 
ment with two subjects joined by ni, 
691. With several infinitives em- 
ployed for subjects, 692. With the 
pronoun qui, 703. Agreement of etre 
when preceded by ce, 695. Verbs 
cannot have two direct comple- 
ments, 704. Same principle applies 
to indirect ones, 705. Verbs of differ- 
ent meanings, 1065 bis. Requiring 
no prepositions when placed before 
verbs in the present infinitive, 1176. 
Requiring the preposition d before 
infinitives, 1177. Requiring the pre- 
position de, 1178. Each verb must 
have suitable complements, 706. 
Place of complements, 709. Com- 
plements of passive verbs, 713. Use 
of the auxiliary verbs, 715 ; of tenses 
of the indicative and conditional 
modes, 726 ; of the subjunctive and 
its tenses, 746; of the infinitive, 
754. Use of verbs in the two Ian- 



610 



GENERAL INDEX. 



guages, 1217 bis. Exercises, page 
190. 
Yerbe pronominal, 93. Essentially pro- 
nominal, 97. Their use, 1147 ter. 
S'en aller, 114S ; se repentir, sab- 
stenir, 1149; s'encourir, 1150; s'en 
donner, s'en passer, s'en aller, s'en- 
fxiir, etc., 1152; s'endormir, 1153; 
se /aire, se jouer, 1154; se mettre, 
1156; se fdcher, se mettre en colere, 
se dechainer, 1158; se servir, se 
passer, se rendre, 1160 bis; se trom- 
per, 1161; 8* entendre, se rire, 1156; 
se connaitre, 1163 ; s'ennuyer, 1162; 
8e marcher, 1164; se porter, 1166; 
se souvenir, 1167; se coucher, 1168; 
8 r asseoir, 1170; se tenir, s'en tenir, 
1171 and following; se demettre, 
1173 ; se taire, 1175. 



Yerbe unipersonnel, 103. 

Yider, Yider les lieux. 1139. 

Yingt, when multiplied by another 

number, 583. Quatre-vingts, 449. 
Yis-d-vis, S26 bis. 
Voici, voild, 417, 829. 
Yoiture, 1185. 
Yoler, 1140. 
You loir dire, 1075. 
Yoi/t'lles. Definition, 5, 6. Long, 

short, 9. 

Y. Used for two is or for one t. — 
Distinction between y adverb and y 
personal pronoun, 397. Y replacing 
the pronouns d lui, d celle, a eux, 637. 
Always referring to something pre- 
viously said, 938. 



THE END. 




C 281 












jp^ 


















vv 



^ ^ 



* a* <^ ^OKr*' 4^ V 



^°^ 



^0* 



a*<fe 




A>-«* -V ^-o Jp^. ^ g- . 




AV "^ 




t <>^ 






u ^ 



a£ ^^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper procea 

% % ~^> &*. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 

*>. ~ 4 • • f j0^ *, Treatment Date: Sept. 2006 

%> V o %% ^lk& *% « C \k&ll^ PreservationTechnologie: 

OV * ^W| P * ^0 * jSJir Wre^ ** A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATKJ 

4.0 *?* *" ^^^^PW * "^ ^ * l^^m^C^? O 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 













* v -* 



* • O - ^ " 

























**o* .fir!!*- *bV* 




<n 






^ 



Jtt 




-«°* 



.*Uta \/ /iM£\ \f 











» ^ • 



* -CT 



